Thai cuisine (Thai:อาหารไทย,RTGS: ahan thai,pronounced[ʔāː.hǎːntʰāj]) is the nationalcuisine ofThailand.
Thai cooking places emphasis on lightly prepared dishes with aromatics andspicy heat. The Australian chefDavid Thompson, an expert on Thai food, observes that unlike many other cuisines, Thai cooking is "about the juggling of disparate elements to create a harmonious finish. Like a complex musical chord it's got to have a smooth surface but it doesn't matter what's happening underneath. Simplicity isn't the dictum here, at all."[1]
Traditional Thai cuisine loosely falls into four categories:tom (Thai:ต้ม, boiled dishes),yam (Thai:ยำ, spicy salads),tam (Thai:ตำ, pounded foods), andkaeng (Thai:แกง, curries). Deep-frying, stir-frying and steaming are methods introduced fromChinese cuisine.[2]
In 2011, seven Thai dishes appeared on a list of the "World's 50 Best Foods", an online poll of 35,000 people worldwide byCNN Travel. Thailand had more dishes on the list than any other country:tom yum kung (4th),pad thai (5th),som tam (6th),massaman curry (10th),green curry (19th),Thai fried rice (24th) andnam tok mu (36th).[3]
Thai cuisine and the culinary traditions and cuisines of Thailand's neighbors, especially Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, India, Malaysia and Indonesia, have influenced one another over the course of many centuries.
According to the Thai monk VenerableBuddhadasa Bhikku's writing, ‘India's Benevolence to Thailand’, Thai cuisine wasinfluenced byIndian cuisine. He wrote that Thai people learned how to usespices in their food in various ways from Indians. Thais also obtained the methods of makingherbal medicines from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of the familyGuttiferae, panika orharsinghar, phikun orMimusops elengi and bunnak or therose chestnut etc. were brought from India.[5] According to the bookMae Khrua Hua Pa (first published in 1908) by LadyPlian Bhaskarawongse, she found that Thai cuisine had a strong gastronomical cultural line from Sukhothai (1238–1448) through Ayuttthaya (1351–1767) and Thonburi period (1767–1782) vis-à-vis Siamese governmental officers' daily routines (such as royal cooking) and their related cousins. Thai food during the Thonburi period tended to be more similar to that from the Ayutthaya period, except the addition of Chinese food resulted from her prosperous international trade.[6][7]
Western influences, starting in 1511 when the first diplomatic mission from thePortuguese arrived at the court of Ayutthaya, have created dishes such asfoi thong, the Thai adaptation of the Portuguesefios de ovos, andsangkhaya, where coconut milk replaces cow's milk in making a custard.[8] These dishes were said to have been brought to Thailand in the 17th century byMaria Guyomar de Pinha, a woman of mixedJapanese-Portuguese-Bengali ancestry who was born in Ayutthaya, and became the wife ofConstantine Phaulkon, a Greek adviser toKing Narai. The most notable influence from the West must be the introduction of thechili pepper from theAmericas in the 16th or 17th century. It, and rice, are now two of the most important ingredients in Thai cuisine.[9] During theColumbian Exchange,Portuguese andSpanish ships brought new foodstuffs from the Americas includingtomatoes,corn,papaya,pea eggplants,pineapple,pumpkins,culantro, cashews, and peanuts.
Regional variations tend to correlate to neighboring states (often sharing the same cultural background andethnicity on both sides of the border) as well as climate and geography. Northern Thai cuisine shares dishes withShan State in Burma, northernLaos, and alsowith Yunnan Province in China, whereas the cuisine ofIsan (northeastern Thailand) is similar tothat of Southern Laos, and byVietnamese cuisine to its east. Southern Thailand, with many dishes that contain liberal amounts ofcoconut milk and freshturmeric, has that in common withIndian,Malaysian, andIndonesian cuisine.[10]
Thai cuisine is more accurately described as five regional cuisines, corresponding to the five mainregions of Thailand:
In addition to these regional cuisines, there is also Thai royal cuisine which can trace its history back to thecosmopolitan palace cuisine of theAyutthaya kingdom (1351–1767 CE). Its refinement, cooking techniques, presentation, and use of ingredients were of great influence to the cuisine of the central Thai plains.[12][13][14] Thai royal cuisine has been influenced by theKhmer royal cuisine through the Khmer palacecooks brought to the Ayutthaya Kingdom during its conquests of theKhmer Empire.[15][16] Thai royal cuisine has become very well known from theRattanakosin Era onwards.
Typically, Thai royal cuisine has basic characteristics that are close to the basic food prepared by general people. However, Thai royal cuisine focuses on the freshness of seasonal products. Other than that, it is crucial that the way in which Thai royal food is cooked should be complex and delicate.
La Loubère, an envoy from France during the reign ofKing Narai, recorded that the food at the court was generally similar to villager food. What makes Thai royal cuisine different food is its beautiful presentation. For example, they served fish and chicken with the bones removed, and the vegetables were served in bite-sized portions. In addition, if beef is used, it should be tenderloin only.
There are many types of Thai royal cuisine such asranchuan curry,nam phrik long ruea,matsaman curry, rice in jasmine-flavored iced water orkhao chae, spicy salad, fruit, and carved vegetable.
Thai chefMcDang, himself descended from the royal family, asserts that the difference between royal Thai cuisine and regular Thai cuisine is fiction. He maintains that the only difference between the food of the palace and that of the common people is the former's elaborate presentation and better ingredients.[17][18]
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Thai food was traditionally eaten with the hand[19][20] while seated on mats or carpets on the floor or coffee table in upper middle class families, customs still found in more traditional households. Today, however, most Thais eat with a fork and spoon. Tables and chairs were introduced as part of a broaderWesternization drive during the reign ofKing Mongkut, Rama IV. The fork and spoon were introduced byKing Chulalongkorn after his return from a tour of Europe in 1897 CE.[21]
Important to Thai dining is the practice ofkhluk, mixing the flavors and textures of different dishes with the rice from one's plate. The food is pushed by the fork, held in the left hand, into the spoon held in the right hand, which is then brought to the mouth.[22] A traditional ceramic spoon is sometimes used for soup, and knives are not generally used at the table.[23] It is common practice for both the Thais and thehill tribe peoples who live inLanna andIsan to use sticky rice as an edible implement by shaping it into small, and sometimes flattened, balls by hand (and only the right hand by custom) which are then dipped into side dishes and eaten.
Chopsticks were foreign utensils to mostethnic groups in Thailand with the exception of theThai Chinese, and a few other cultures such as theAkha people, who are recent arrivals fromYunnan Province,China. Traditionally, the majority of ethnicThai people ate with their hands like the people of India. Chopsticks are mainly used in Thailand for eating Chinese-style noodle soups, or atChinese,Japanese, orKorean restaurants. Stir-fried noodle dishes such asdrunken noodles,pad see ew, andpad thai, and curry-noodle dishes such askhanom chinnam ngiao, are also eaten with a fork and spoon in the Thai fashion.
Thai meals typically consist of rice (khao in Thai) with many complementary dishes shared by all. The dishes are all served at the same time, including the soups, and it is also customary to provide more dishes than there are guests at a table. A Thai family meal would normally consist of rice with several dishes which should form a harmonious contrast of flavors and textures as well as preparation methods. Traditionally, a meal would have at least five elements: a dip or relish for raw or cooked vegetables (khrueang chim) is the most crucial component of any Thai meal.[24][25]Khrueang chim, considered a building block of Thai food by Chef McDang, may come in the form of a spicychili sauce or relish callednam phrik (made of raw or cooked chilies and other ingredients, which are then mashed together), or a type of dip enriched with coconut milk calledlon. The other elements would include a clear soup (perhaps a spicytom yam or a mellowtom chuet), a curry or stew (essentially any dish identified with thekaeng prefix), a deep-fried dish, and a stir-fried dish of meat, fish, seafood, or vegetables.
In most Thai restaurants, diners will have access to a selection of Thai sauces (nam chim) and condiments, either brought to the table by wait staff or present at the table in small containers. These may includephrik nam pla/nam pla phrik (fish sauce, lime juice, chopped chilies and garlic), dried chili flakes,sweet chili sauce, sliced chili peppers in rice vinegar,Sriracha sauce, and even sugar. With certain dishes, such askhao kha mu (pork trotter stewed in soy sauce and served with rice), wholeThai peppers and rawgarlic are served in addition to the sour chili sauce. Cucumber is sometimes eaten to cool the mouth with particularly spicy dishes. They often feature as agarnish, especially with one-dish meals. The plain rice, sticky rice or thekhanom chin (Thai rice noodles) served alongside a spicyThai curry or stir-fry, tends to counteract the spiciness.
When time is limited or when eating alone, single dishes, such as fried rice or noodle soups, are quick and filling. An alternative is to have one or more smaller helpings of curry, stir fries and other dishes served together on one plate with a portion of rice. This style of serving food is calledkhao rat kaeng (lit. 'rice covered with curry'), or for shortkhao kaeng (lit. 'rice curry'). Eateries and shops that specialize in pre-made food are the usual place to go to for having a meal this way. These venues have a large display showing the different dishes one can choose. When placing an order at these places, Thais will state if they want the food served as separate dishes or together on one plate with rice (rat khao). Very often, regular restaurants will also feature a selection of freshly made "rice curry" dishes on their menu for single customers.
Thai cuisine, as a whole, features many different ingredients (suan phasom;Thai:ส่วนผสม), and ways of preparing food. Thai chefMcDang characterises Thai food as having "intricacy, attention to detail, texture, color, and taste.[23]
Thai food is known for its enthusiastic use of fresh (rather than dried)herbs andspices. Common flavors in Thai food come from garlic,galangal,coriander/cilantro,lemongrass,shallots,pepper,kaffir lime leaves,shrimp paste,fish sauce, andchilies.Palm sugar, made from the sap of certainBorassus palms, is used to sweeten dishes whilelime andtamarind contribute sour notes. Meats used in Thai cuisine are usually pork and chicken, and also duck,beef, andwater buffalo. Goat, lamb, and mutton are rarely eaten except byMuslim Thais inSouthern Thailand.Game, such aswild boar,deer and wild birds, are now less common due toloss of habitat, the introduction of modern methods ofintensive animal farming in the 1960s, and the rise ofagribusinesses, such as ThaiCharoen Pokphand Foods, in the 1980s.[26] Traditionally, fish, crustaceans, and shellfish play an important role in the diet of Thai people. In 2006 the per capita consumption of fish was 33.6 kg.[27][28]Anna Leonowens (ofThe King and I fame) observed in her bookThe English Governess at the Siamese Court (1870):[29]
"The stream is rich in fish of excellent quality and flavour, such as is found in most of the great rivers of Asia; and is especially noted for itsplatoo, a kind of sardine, so abundant and cheap that it forms a common seasoning to the labourer's bowl of rice."
Freshwater varieties come from the many rivers, lakes, ponds, andpaddy fields inland, and seafood from the tropical seas of the southern half of the country. Some species, such as thegiant river prawn, need brackish water as juveniles but live out their lives in freshwater once mature.Aquaculture of species such asNile tilapia,catfish,tiger prawns, andblood cockles, now generates a large portion of the seafood sold in, and exported from Thailand.[30]
Like most other Asian cuisines, rice is the staple grain of Thai cuisine. According to Thai food expert McDang, rice is the first and most important part of any meal, and the words for rice and food are the same:khao. As in many other rice eating cultures, to say "eat rice" (in Thai"kin khao",pronounced[kīnkʰâːw]) means to eat food.Rice is such an integral part of the diet that a common Thai greeting is"kin khao rue yang?" (lit. '"have you eaten rice yet?').[31]
Thai farmers historically have cultivated tens of thousands of rice varieties. The traditional recipe for a rice dish could include as many as 30 varieties of rice.[32] That number has been drastically reduced due to genetic modifications.
Non-glutinous rice (Oryza sativa) is calledkhao chao (lit. 'royal rice'). One type, which is indigenous to Thailand, is the highly prized, sweet-smellingjasmine rice (khao hom mali). This naturally aromatic long-grained rice grows in abundance in thepatchwork of paddy fields that blanket Thailand's central plains. Once therice is steamed or cooked, it is calledkhao suai (lit. 'beautiful rice'). Non-glutinous rice is used for making fried rice dishes, and forcongee, of which there are three main varieties:khao tom (a thin rice soup, most often with minced pork or fish),khao tom kui (a thick, unflavored rice porridge that is served with side dishes), orchok (a thick rice porridge that is flavored with broth and minced meat).
Other varieties of rice eaten in Thailand include:sticky rice (khao niao), a unique variety of rice which contains an unusual balance of the starches present in all rice, causing it to cook up to a sticky texture. ThaiRed Cargo rice, an unpolished long grain rice with an outer deep reddish-brown color and a white center, has a nutty taste and is slightly chewy compared to the soft and gummy texture of jasmine rice. Only the husks of the red rice grains are removed which allows it to retain all its nutrients and vitamins, but unlike brown rice, its red color comes from antioxidants in the bran. Black sticky rice is a type of sticky rice with a deep purple-red color that may appear black. Another unpolished grain, black sticky rice has a rich nutty flavor that is most often used in desserts.
Noodles in Thailand are usually made from the flour of rice, wheat, or mung bean. Perhaps one of the oldest type of noodle in Thailand iskhanom chin, which is a fresh type of rice vermicelli made from fermented rice, and eaten with toppings likegreen curry (kaeng khiao wan) with chicken or ingreen papaya salad (som tam). Other noodle varieties were subsequently introduced by Chinese migrants to Thailand, as is testified by their Sino-Thai namekuaitiao (ก๋วยเตี๋ยว;Chinese:粿條;pinyin:guǒtiáo). The three most common rice varieties ofkuaitiao aresen yai (เส้นใหญ่) wide flat noodles,sen lek (เส้นเล็ก) narrow flat noodles, andsen miเส้นหมี่; orrice vermicelli), which are round and thin. A fourth popular variety,bami (บะหมี่;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:bah-mī) is made from egg andwheat flour and is usually sold fresh.Bami are similar to the Teochewmee pok. A fifth type,wun sen (วุ้นเส้น;lit. 'jelly strands'), calledcellophane noodles orglass noodles in English, are thin round noodles made frommung bean flour which are sold dried. Lastly, and least common in noodle shops, are "silver needle noodles"kiam-i (เกี้ยมอี๋), a somewhat thick round rice noodle similar in size and shape to bean sprouts. Thai noodle dishes, whether stir fried likepad thai or in the form of a noodle soup, usually come as an individual serving and are not meant to be shared and eaten communally.
Rice flour (paeng khao chao) andtapioca flour (paeng man sampalang) are often used in desserts or as thickening agents.
An ingredient found in many Thai dishes and used in every region of the country isnam pla, a clearfish sauce that is very aromatic. Fish sauce is a staple ingredient in Thai cuisine and imparts a unique character to Thai food. Fish sauce is prepared with fermented fish that is made into a fragrant condiment and provides a salty flavor. There are many varieties of fish sauce and many variations in the way it is prepared. Some fish may be fermented with shrimp or spices. Another type of sauce made from fermented fish ispla ra. It is more pungent thannam pla, and, in contrast tonam pla, which is a clear liquid,pla ra is opaque and often contains pieces of fish. To add this sauce to asom tam (spicy papaya salad) is a matter of choice.Kapi, Thaishrimp paste, is a combination of fermented ground shrimp and salt. It is used in the famous chili paste callednam phrik kapi, in rice dishes such askhao khluk kapi and it is indispensable for makingThai curry pastes.Tai pla is a pungent sauce used in thesouthern Thai cuisine, that is made from the fermented innards of theshort mackerel (pla thu).[33] It is one of the main condiments ofkaeng tai pla curry and is also used to makenam phrik tai pla.[34] Far removed from the nearest sea, from northern Thailand comesnam pu, a thick, black paste made by boiling mashedrice-paddy crabs for hours. It is used as an ingredient for certain northern Thai salads, curries, and chili pastes. It too has a strong and pungent flavor.[35]
Nam phrik are Thai chili pastes, similar to theIndonesian andMalaysiansambals. Each region has its own special versions. The words"nam phrik" are used by Thais to describe many pastes containing chilies used for dipping, although the more watery versions tend to be callednam chim.Thai curry pastes are normally calledphrik kaeng orkhrueang kaeng (lit. 'curry ingredients'), but some people also use the wordnam phrik to designate a curry paste. Red curry paste, for instance, could be calledphrik kaeng phet orkhrueang kaeng phet in Thai, but alsonam phrik kaeng phet. Bothnam phrik andphrik kaeng are prepared by crushing together chilies with various ingredients such as garlic and shrimp paste using amortar and pestle. Somenam phrik are served as a dip with vegetables such as cucumbers, cabbage and yard-long beans, either raw or blanched. One such paste isnam phrik num, a paste of pounded fresh green chilies, shallots, garlic and coriander leaves. The sweet roasted chili paste callednam phrik phao is often used as an ingredient intom yam or when frying meat or seafood, and it is also popular as a spicy "jam" on bread, or served as a dip withprawn crackers. The drynam phrik kung, made with poundeddried shrimp (kung haeng), is often eaten plain with rice and a few slices of cucumber. French diplomatSimon de la Loubère observed that chili pastes were vital for the way Thai people eat. He provides us with a recipe fornam phrik withpla ra and onions inDu Royaume de Siam, an account of his mission to Thailand published in 1691.[36]
The soy sauces which are used in Thai cuisine are of Chinese origin, and the Thai names for them are (wholly or partially)loanwords from theTeochew dialect:si-io dam (black soy sauce),si-io khao (light soy sauce),si-io wan (sweet soy sauce), andtaochiao (fermented whole soy beans).Namman hoi (oyster sauce) is also of Chinese origin. It is used extensively in vegetable and meat stir fries.
Satay is also common in Thailand, grilled or skewered meat served with a spicy peanut dipping sauce made from roasted or fried peanuts.
Thai dishes use a wide variety of herbs, spices and leaves rarely found in the West. The characteristic flavor ofkaffir lime leaves (bai makrut) appears in many Thai soups (e.g., the hot and sourtom yam) or curry from the southern and central areas of Thailand. The Thailime (manao) is smaller, darker and sweeter than the kaffir lime, which has a rough looking skin with a stronger lime flavor. Kaffir lime leaves or rind is frequently combined withgalangal (kha) andlemongrass (takhrai), either kept whole in simmered dishes or blended together with liberal amounts of chilies and other aromatics to make curry paste. FreshThai basil, distinctively redolent ofcloves, and with stems which are often tinged with a purple color, are used to add fragrance in certain dishes such asgreen curry. Other commonly used herbs in Thai cuisine includephak chi, (coriander or cilantro leaves),rak phak chi (cilantro/coriander roots),spearmint (saranae),holy basil (kaphrao), ginger (khing),turmeric (khamin),fingerroot (krachai),culantro (phak chi farang),pandanus leaves (bai toei), andThai lemon basil (maenglak). Spices and spice mixtures used in Thai cuisine includephong phalo (five-spice powder),phong kari (curry powder), and fresh and driedpeppercorns (phrik thai). Northern Thailarb uses a very elaborate spice mix, calledphrik lap, which includes ingredients such ascumin,cloves,long pepper,star anise,prickly ash seeds andcinnamon.[37]
Besides kaffir lime leaves, several other tree leaves are used in Thai cuisine such ascha-om, the young feathery leaves of theAcacia pennata tree. These leaves can be cooked in omelettes, soups and curries or eaten raw in northern Thai salads.Banana leaves are often used as packaging for ready-made food or as steamer cups such as inho mok pla, a spicy steamedpâté orsoufflé made with fish and coconut milk.Banana flowers are also used inThai salads or as a vegetable ingredient for certain curries. The leaves and flowers of theneem tree (sadao) are also eaten blanched.Phak lueat (leaves from theFicus virens) are cooked in curries, andbai makok (from theSpondias mombin) can be eaten raw with a chili paste.
Five main chilies are generally used as ingredients in Thai food. One chili is very small (about 1.25 centimetres (0.49 in)) and is known as the hottest chili:phrik khi nu suan ("garden mouse-dropping chili"). The slightly larger chiliphrik khi nu ("mouse-dropping chili") is the next hottest. The green or redphrik chi fa ("sky pointing chili") is slightly less spicy than the smaller chilies. The very large phrik yuak, which is pale green in color, is the least spicy and used more as a vegetable. Lastly, the dried chilies:phrik haeng are spicier than the two largest chilies and dried to a dark red color.
Other typical ingredients are the several types ofeggplant (makhuea) used in Thai cuisine, such as the pea-sizedmakhuea phuang and the egg-sizedmakhuea suai, often also eaten raw. Althoughbroccoli is often used in Asian restaurants in the west inphat phak ruam (stir fried mixed vegetables) andrat na (rice noodles served in gravy), it was never used in any traditional Thai food in Thailand and was rarely seen in Thailand. Usually in Thailand,khana is used, for which broccoli is a substitute. Other vegetables which are often eaten in Thailand arethua fak yao (yardlong beans),thua ngok (bean sprouts),no mai (bamboo shoots), tomatoes,cucumbers,phak tam lueng (Coccinia grandis),phak kha na (Chinese kale),phak kwangtung (choy sum),sweet potatoes (both the tuber and leaves), a few types ofsquash,phak krathin (Leucaena leucocephala),sato (Parkia speciosa),tua phū (winged beans) andkhaophot (corn).
Among the green, leafy vegetables and herbs that are usually eaten raw in a meal or as a side dish in Thailand, the most important are:phak bung (morning glory),horapha (Thai basil),bai bua bok (Asian pennywort),phak kachet (water mimosa),phak kat khao (Chinese cabbage),phak phai (praew leaves),phak kayang (rice paddy herb),phak chi farang (culantro),phak tiu (Cratoxylum formosum),phak "phaai" (yellow burr head) andkalamplī (cabbage).[38] Some of these leaves are highly perishable and must be used within a couple of days.
Several types ofmushroom (het) also feature in Thai cuisine such asstraw mushrooms (het fang),shiitake (het hom), andwhite jelly fungus (het hu nu khao).[39]
Flowers are also commonly used ingredients in many Thai dishes, either as a vegetable, such asdok khae (Sesbania grandiflora) andhuapli (the flower bud of thebanana), or as a food coloring, such as with the blue-coloreddok anchan (the flowers of theClitoria ternatea, which can also be eaten raw or fried).
Fresh fruit forms a large part of the Thai diet, and are customarily served after a meal as dessert. The Scottish authorJohn Crawfurd, sent on an embassy to Bangkok in 1822, writes in his account of the journey:
"The fruits of Siam, or at least of the neighbourhood of Bangkok, are excellent and various, surpassing, according to the experience of our party (...) those of all other parts of India."[40] The Siamese themselves consume great quantities of fruit, and the whole neighbourhood of Bangkok is one forest of fruit trees.[41]
Fruit is not only eaten on its own, but often served with spicy dips made from sugar, salt, and chilies.[42] Fruits feature in spicy salads such assom tam (green papaya salad) andyam som-o (pomelo salad), in soups withtamarind juice such astom khlong andkaeng som, and in Thai curries such askaeng khanun (jackfruit curry),kaeng phet pet yang (grilled duck curry with pineapple or grapes), andkaeng pla sapparot (fish and pineapple curry). Fruits are also used in certain Thai chili pastes, such as innam phrik long rue made withmadan (a close relative of themangosteen),[43] andnam phrik luk namliap, salted blackChinese olive chilli paste.[44]
Although many of the exotic fruits of Thailand may have been sometimes unavailable in Western countries, Asian markets now import such fruits asrambutan andlychees. In Thailand one can findpapaya,jackfruit,mango,mangosteen,langsat,longan,pomelo,pineapple,rose apples,durian,Burmese grapes and other native fruits.Chanthaburi in Thailand each year holds theWorld Durian Festival in early May. This single province is responsible for half of the durian production of Thailand and a quarter of the world production.[45][46][47] TheLangsat Festival is held each year inUttaradit on weekends in September. Thelangsat (Lansium parasiticum), for which Uttaradit is famous, is a fruit that is similar in taste to thelongan.[48]
From thecoconut comescoconut milk, used both in curries and desserts, andcoconut oil.[49] Thejuice of a green coconut can be served as a drink and the young flesh is eaten in either sweet or savory dishes. The grated flesh of a mature coconut is used raw or toasted in sweets, salads and snacks such asmiang kham.[50] Thais not only consume products derived from the nut (actually adrupe), but they also make use of thegrowth bud of the palm tree as a vegetable. From the stalk of the flowers comes a sap that can be used to makecoconut vinegar, alcoholic beverages, and sugar. Coconut milk and other coconut-derived ingredients feature heavily in the cuisines of central and southern Thailand. In contrast to these regions, coconut palms do not grow as well in northern and northeastern Thailand, where in wintertime the temperatures are lower and where there is a dry season that can last five to six months. In northern Thai cuisine, only a few dishes, most notably the noodle soupkhao soi, use coconut milk. In the southern parts of northeastern Thailand, where the region bordersCambodia, one can again find dishes containing coconut. It is also here that the people eat non-glutinous rice, just as in central and southern Thailand, and not glutinous rice as they do in northern Thailand and in the rest of northeastern Thailand.[51]
Apples,pears,peaches,grapes, andstrawberries, which do not traditionally grow in Thailand and in the past had to be imported, have become increasingly popular in the last few decades since they were introduced to Thai farmers by the Thai Royal Projects, starting in 1969, and theDoi Tung Project since 1988. These temperate fruit grow especially well in the cooler, northernThai highlands, where they were initially introduced as areplacement for the cultivation of opium, together with other crops such as cabbages,tea, andarabica coffee.
According to the Thai government'sThe Eleventh National Economic and Social Development Plan (2012–2016), Thailand is number one in the world in the application of chemicals in agriculture. The report stated that, "The use of chemicals in the agricultural and industrial sectors is growing while control mechanisms are ineffective making Thailand rank first in the world in the use of registered chemicals in agriculture."[52]: 111
The Thai Pesticide Alert Network (ThaiPAN), a food safety advocacy group, annually tests Thai farm produce for contamination. In their June 2019 report, the group found that of 286 samples, 41% of produce was found to contain unsafe levels of chemicals.[53] The group surveyed both wet markets and retail stores across the nation. Contaminants were found in 44% of samples from retail stores, and 39% of samples from wet markets. Vegetables with the highest levels of contamination were Chinese mustard greens, kale, hot basil, parsley, chilis, and cauliflower. Fruits with the highest contamination were tangerines, rose apples, guavas, and grapes. Contamination levels decreased from 2018, when 46% of samples were found to be contaminated, and 2016, when more than 50% of tested produce was found to be unsafe.[54]
In prior years, "Q-Mark" goods showed a higher prevalence of contamination, 61.5%, than they did during ThaiPAN's March 2016 survey, 57%. Q-Mark is Thailand's National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards (ACFS) mark of quality.[55][56]
In a survey of hydroponically-grown vegetables, ThaiPAN, in late-2017, tested 30hydroponic vegetables purchased at Thai fresh markets and supermarkets. Of 30 vegetables tested, 19 contained noxious chemical levels above maximum limits. Three samples were contaminated, but at levels below the legal maximum. Eight samples were free of harmful chemicals.[57]
On 22 October 2019, the 26-member National Hazardous Substances Committee (NHSC) changedparaquat,glyphosate, andchlorpyrifos from Type 3 toxic substances to Type 4, effectively prohibiting their production, import, export, or possession. Their use will be prohibited as of 1 December 2019.[58] On 27 November 2019, the NHSC amended that timetable, moving the date for the ban of paraquat and chlorpyrifos to 1 June 2020. They lifted the ban on glyphosate with restrictions on usage: glyphosate will be used only on six major crops: corn, cassava, sugarcane, rubber, oil palms, and fruit. It is not permitted in watershed areas and other sensitive environment zones, and farmers must submit proof of use including the type of crops and the size of their farms when purchasing glyphosate. Industry MinisterSuriya Jungrungreangkit, who chairs the NHSC, said the committee reached its decision after reviewing information provided by the Department of Agriculture and the Ministry of Public Health.[59] NCHS member Jirapon Limpananon, chair of the Pharmacy Council of Thailand, announced her resignation from the NCHS Wednesday night following the meeting.[60][61]
Whereas many Thai dishes are now familiar in the West, the vast majority are not. In many of the dishes below, different kinds of protein, or combinations of protein, are interchangeable as the main ingredient. Beef (nuea), chicken (kai), pork (mu), duck (pet),tofu (taohu), fish (pla), prawns or shrimp (kung), crab (pu),shellfish (hoi), oregg (khai) can, for example, all be used as main ingredients forkaeng phet (red curry). Thuskaeng phet kai is red curry with chicken andkaeng phet mu is red curry made with pork.
Khao chao (Thai:ข้าวเช้า;lit. 'morning rice/food'), breakfast dishes, for Thais are limited. Very often, a Thai breakfast can consist of the same dishes with rice which are also eaten for lunch or dinner. Single dishes such as fried rice, noodle soups, and steamed rice with something simple such as an omelette, fried/grilled pork or chicken, or a stir fry with vegetables, are commonly sold for breakfast fromstreet stalls as a quicktake-out.
The following dishes are viewed as being specific breakfast dishes but they can also be found at any other moment of the day:[64][65]
The termahan chan diao (Thai:อาหารจานเดียว;lit. 'single dish food') represents truly single-plate dishes as well as dishes that are served"rat khao" (lit. 'poured on rice'): one or more dishes served together with rice on one plate. Some eateries offer a large selection of (pre-cooked) dishes; others specialize in only a one dish, or a few dishes, with rice.
Ahan Krung Thep (Thai:อาหารกรุงเทพ;lit. 'Bangkok food'), the cuisine has also incorporated manyThai Chinese dishes.
Ahan Phak Klang (Thai:อาหารภาคกลาง;lit. 'central region food') is most often eaten with the non-glutinousjasmine rice. Due to the extensive, centuries-long contact betweenAyutthaya Kingdom andKhmer Empire, the flavour principles of many Central Thai dishes, such as sour fish soups, stews and coconut-based curries, includingsteamed curries, are almost identical to that ofCambodian cuisine, with the notable exception of Central Thai dishes containing much more chilli and sugar.[68]
Ahan Isan (Thai:อาหารอีสาน;lit. 'Isan food') generally features dishes similar to those found inLaos, asIsan people historically have close ties withLao culture and speak a language that is generally mutually intelligible with theLao language. Thestaple food of Isan isglutinous rice and most of the Isan food is spicy and cooked with local ingredients found on the farms all through northeastern Thailand. Isan people primarily get their income from farming. Rice, sugar cane, pineapple, potato, and rubber are all farmed in this region.
Ahan Phak Nuea (Thai:อาหารภาคเหนือ;lit. 'northern region food') shares certain dishes with neighboringShan State, in Burma, and withLaos. As in northeastern Thailand, glutinous rice, not jasmine rice, is eaten as the staple food.
Ahan Phak Tai (Thai:อาหารภาคใต้;lit. 'southern region food') shares certain dishes with thecuisine of northern Malaysia. Southern Thais, just like the people of central Thailand to the north, and the people of Malaysia to the south, eat non-glutinous rice as their staple food.
(Thai:ของหวาน;RTGS: khong wan) lit. 'sweet things'). Although most Thai meals finish with fresh fruit, sometimes sweet snacks, often eaten between meals, will also be served as a dessert.
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Ice cream was introduced to Thailand during the reign ofKing Rama V when the first ice cream machine was imported to Thailand.[72] Ice cream in the second half of the 19th century was made of coconut water blended with ice. At first, ice could not be produced in Thailand. That led to importing ice from Singapore. Ice cream was then an upper-class treat, but over time ice cream became more widely available and the product was improved by replacing coconut water with coconut milk.
There were two types of ice cream in Thailand. First, ice cream in the palace was made of coconut juice with roasted tamarind on top. Second, ice cream for the public was coconut ice cream with the scent of the Nommaeo flower with a slight sweet taste. The ice cream "tube" was born during the reign ofRama VII. Its ingredients were contained inside a zinc tube which was shaken until it solidified, then skewered stick to serve as a handle. It was sold by mobile vendors using dry ice and salt to keep the ice cream cold. Eventually, ice cream was manufactured and sold in small cups.[73]
According to theBangkok Post,aitim tat (Thai:ไอติมตัด; "cut ice cream"), was very popular 30 years ago (1986). It came in rectangular bars of various flavors, sliced into pieces by the vendor, who then inserted two wooden sticks into the pieces to use as holders.Aitim tat was made from milk, coconut milk, flour, sugar, and artificial flavour. The price was one or twobaht, depending on the size.[72]
The Pop Company in the 1970s set up the first ice-cream manufacturing plant in Thailand. The company used a duck logo, resulting it the nicknameaitim tra pet (Thai:ไอติมตราเป็ด; "duck brand ice cream").[72] It was sold in front of Chaloemchai Theater. Its most popular offering was called "banana split", with three flavors of ice cream, chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry.[73]
Khrueang duem (Thai:เครื่องดื่ม;lit. 'beverages')
Other alcoholic beverages from Thailand include Hong Thong, Phraya, Regency,Mekhong andSang Som. Several brands of beer arebrewed in Thailand; the two most prominent brands areSingha andChang.
Edible insects, whole or in chili paste and as ingredients in fortified products, are common in Thailand. Some claim that Thailand is the world leader in edible insects.[74] The UNFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that there are about 20,000cricket farms alone in 53 of Thailand's 76 provinces.[75]
A wide range ofinsects are eaten in Thailand, especially in Isan and in the north. Many markets in Thailand sell deep-friedgrasshoppers, crickets (ching-rit),bee larvae,silkworm (non mai),ant eggs (khai mot) andtermites. The culinary creativity even extends to naming: one tasty larva, which is also known under the name "bamboo worm" (non mai phai,Omphisa fuscidentalis),[76] is colloquially called "express train" (rot duan) due to its appearance.
Most insects reportedly taste fairly bland when deep-fried. In contrast to the bland taste of most of these insects, themaeng da ormaelong da na (Lethocerus indicus) has been described as having a very penetrating taste, similar to that of a very ripegorgonzola cheese.[77] Thisgiant water bug is famously used in a chili dip callednam phrik maeng da.[78] Ant eggs and silkworms are eaten boiled in a soup inIsan, or used in egg dishes in northern Thailand.[79]
The street food culture of much of Southeast Asia was introduced byChinese immigrants during the late 19th century. As a result, many Thai street foods are derived from or heavily influenced byChinese cuisine.[80] Street food was commonly sold by theethnic Chinese population of Thailand and did not become popular among native Thai people until the early 1960s, when the rapid urban population growth stimulated the street food culture,[81] and by the 1970s, it had "displaced home-cooking."[82]
The quality and choice of street food in Thailand is world-renowned. Bangkok is often mentioned as one of the best street food cities in the world, and even called the street food capital of the world.[83][84] The websiteVirtualTourist says: "Few places in the world, if any, are as synonymous with street food as Thailand. For the variety of locations and abundance of options, we selected Bangkok, Thailand, as our number one spot for street food. Bangkok is notable for both its variety of offerings and the city's abundance of street hawkers."[85]
There is scarcely a Thai dish that is not sold by a street vendor or at a market somewhere in Thailand. Some specialize in only one or two dishes; others offer a complete menu that rival that of restaurants. Some sell only pre-cooked foods, while others make food to order. Foods that are made to order tend to be dishes that can be quickly prepared: quick stir fries with rice, such asphat kaphrao (spicy basil-fried minced pork, chicken, or seafood)[86] orphat khana (stir friedgailan) and quick curries such aspladuk phat phet (catfish fried with red curry paste).
Noodles are a popular street food item as they are mainly eaten as a single dish. Chinese-style noodle soups, fried noodles, and fermented Thai rice noodles (khanom chin), served with a choice of different Thai curries, are popular. Nearly everywhere in Thailand, you will seesom tam (green papaya salad) and sticky rice sold at stalls and roadside shops. This is popularly eaten together with grilled chicken, but if the shop does not sell any themselves, someone else nearby will. In most cities and towns there will be stalls selling sweetroti, a thin, flat fried dough envelope, with fillings such as banana, egg, and chocolate. Theroti is similar to the Malayroti canai and Singaporeanroti prata, and the stalls are often operated byThai Muslims. Sweets snacks, collectively calledkhanom, such astako (coconut cream jelly),khanom man (coconutcassava cake), andkhanom wun (flavored jellies), can be seen displayed on large trays in glass covered push-carts. Other sweets, such askhanom bueang andkhanom krok (somewhat similar to Dutchpoffertjes), are made to order.
In the evenings, mobile street stalls, often only a scooter with a side car, drive by and temporarily set up shop outside bars in Thailand, sellingkap klaem ("drinking food"). Popularkap klaem dishes sold by mobile vendors are grilled items such as sun-dried squid, meats on skewers, or grilled sour sausages, and deep-fried snacks such as fried insects or fried sausages. Peeled and sliced fruits are also sold from street carts, laid out on a bed of crushed ice to preserve their freshness.Salapao, steamed buns filled with meat or sweet beans and the Thai version of the Chinese steamedbaozi, are also commonly sold by mobile vendors.
Food markets in Thailand, large open air halls with permanent stalls, tend to operate as a collection of street stalls, each vendor with their own set of tables and providing (limited) service, although some resemble the regular food courts at shopping malls and large supermarkets, with service counters and the communal use of tables. Food courts and food markets offer many of the same foods as street stalls, both pre-cooked as well as made to order. Night food markets, in the form of a collection of street stalls and mobile vendors, spring up in parking lots, along busy streets, and at temple fairs and local festivals in the evenings, when the temperatures are more agreeable and people have finished work.
The dishes sold atwet markets in Thailand tend to be offered pre-cooked. Many people go there, and also to street vendors, to buy food for at work, or to take back home. It is a common sight to see Thais carrying whole communal meals consisting of several dishes, cooked rice, sweets, and fruit, all neatly packaged in plastic bags andfoam food containers, to be shared with colleagues at work or at home with friends and family. Due to the fact that many dishes are similar to those that people would cook at home, it is a good place to find regional, and seasonal, foods.
Although theVegetarian Festival is celebrated each year by a portion of Thailand's population, and many restaurants in Thailand will offer vegetarian food during this festival period, pure vegetarian food is usually difficult to find in normal restaurants and eateries in Thailand. All traditionally madeThai curries, for instance, containshrimp paste, andfish sauce is used as salt in many Thai dishes. At shops and restaurants that specifically cater to vegetarians, substitutes for these ingredients are used. Meat dishes are also commonly part of thealms offered toBuddhist monks in Thailand, asvegetarianism is not considered obligatory inTheravada Buddhism, but having an animal killed specifically to feed Buddhist monks is prohibited.[87][88]
In most towns and cities, traditionalBuddhist vegetarian fare, without any meat or seafood products of any kind and also excluding certain strong tasting vegetables and spices, is sold at specialized vegetarian restaurants which can be recognized by a yellow sign with in Thai script the wordche (Thai:เจ) orahan che (Thai:อาหารเจ) written on it in red. These restaurants serve what can be regarded asvegan food. Many Indian restaurants of the sizableThai-Indian community will also have vegetarian dishes on offer, due to the fact that vegetarianism is held as an ideal by manyfollowers of the Hindu faith. Indian vegetarian cuisine can incorporatedairy products andhoney. Due to the increased demand for vegetarian food from foreign tourists, many hotels, guesthouses and restaurants that cater to them will now also have vegetarian versions of Thai dishes on their menu.Pescatarians would have very few problems with Thai cuisine due to the abundance of Thai dishes which only contain fish and seafood as their source of animal protein.[89][90][91][92][93]
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Thai cuisine only became well-known worldwide from the 1960s on, whenThailand became a destination for international tourism and US troops arrived in large numbers during theVietnam War. The number of Thai restaurants went up from four in the 1970sLondon to between two and three hundred in less than 25 years.[94]: 3–4 The earliest attested Thai restaurant in the United States, "Chada Thai", opened its doors in 1959 inDenver, Colorado. It was run by the former newspaper publisher Lai-iad (Lily) Chittivej. The oldest Thai restaurant in London, "The Bangkok Restaurant", was opened in 1967 by Mr and MrsBunnag, a former Thai diplomat and his wife, inSouth Kensington.[95]
The global popularity of Thai cuisine is seen as an important factor in promoting tourism, and also increased exports of Thailand'sagricultural sector. From the 2000s, it was developed as a deliberategastrodiplomacy. TheThaksin administration (2001–2006) launched the "Kitchen of the World" campaign early in its tenure to promote Thai cuisine internationally, with a yearly budget of 500 millionbaht. It provided loans and training forrestaurateurs seeking to establish Thai restaurants overseas; established the "Thai Select" certification program which encouraged the use of ingredients imported from Thailand; and promoted integration between Thai investors,Thai Airways, and the Tourism Authority of Thailand with Thai restaurants overseas.[94]: 10–12
The "Global Thai" program, launched in 2002, was a government-led culinary diplomacy initiative. It aimed to boost the number of Thai restaurants worldwide to 8,000 by 2003 from about 5,500 previously.[96] By 2011, that number had swelled to more than 10,000 Thai restaurants worldwide.[97]
The program was explained inThailand: Kitchen of the World, an e-book published to promote the program. The point of the e-book: "In the view of the Export Promotion Department, Thai restaurants have a good business potential that can be developed to maintain a high level of international recognition. To achieve that goal, the department is carrying out a public relations campaign to build up a good image of the country through Thai restaurants worldwide."[98]: Chapter 7
The Department of Export Promotion of the ThaiMinistry of Commerce offers potential restaurateurs plans for three different "master restaurant" types—from fast food to elegant—which investors can choose as a prefabricated restaurant plan.[99][100] Concomitantly, theExport-Import Bank of Thailand offered loans to Thai nationals aiming to open restaurants abroad, and the Small and Medium Enterprise Development Bank of Thailand set up an infrastructure for loans of up to US$3 million for overseas food industry initiatives, including Thai restaurants.[100]
One survey conducted in 2003 by theKellogg School of Management and Sasin Institute showed that Thai cuisine ranked fourth when people were asked to name anethnic cuisine, afterItalian,French, andChinese cuisine. When asked "what is your favourite cuisine?", Thailand's cuisine came in at sixth place, behind the three aforementioned cuisines, andIndian andJapanese cuisine.[94]: 3–4
In June 2009, theTourism Authority of Thailand organised a conference to discuss these matters at theQueen Sirikit National Convention Centre in Bangkok. TAT Governor Seree Wangpaichitr said, "This conference was long overdue. The promotion of Thai cuisine is one of our major niche-market targets. Our figures show that visitors spent 38.8 billion baht on eating and drinking last year, up 16% over 1997."[101]
In the list of the "World's 50 most delicious foods", compiled byCNN in 2011,som tam stands at place 46,nam tok mu at 19,tom yam kung at 8, andmassaman curry stands on first place as most delicious food in the world.[102] In a reader's poll held a few months later by CNN,Nam tok mu came in at 36, Thai fried rice at 24, green curry at 19,massaman curry at 10, and Thaisom tam, pad thai, andtom yam kung at six, five, and four.[103]
In 2012, the BritishRestaurant Magazine includedNahm Bangkok of chefDavid Thompson in its yearly list ofThe World's 50 Best Restaurants.[104]
Thai chefs of the Thailand Culinary Academy took second place in the Gourmet Team Challenge (Practical) of the FHC China International Culinary Arts Competition 14 in Shanghai, China on 14–16 November 2012. They won the IKA Culinary Olympic 2012 competition held inErfurt, Germany between 5–10 October 2012, where they received four gold and one silver medal.[105]
In 2011, theJames Beard Foundation Award for Best Chef in theNorthwestern United States, was presented toAndy Ricker of restaurant "Pok Pok" inPortland, Oregon, and for Best Chef in theSouthwestern United States to Saipin Chutima of restaurant "Lotus of Siam" inWinchester, Nevada.[106]
Three restaurants that specialize in Thai cuisine, but are owned by non-Thai chefs, have receivedMichelin stars:
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Culinary tours of Thailand have gained popularity in recent years. Alongside other forms oftourism in Thailand, food tours have carved a niche for themselves. Many companies offer culinary and cooking tours of Thailand and many tourists visiting Thailand attend cooking courses offered by hotels, guesthouses and cooking schools.[111]
The Thai government believes that a substandard Thai restaurant meal served abroad "...sabotages the country's reputation."[112] To ensure the quality of Thai food abroad, the government has over the years initiated a series of programs designed to create universal standards for Thai food.
In 2003 theMinistry of Finance sent officials to the US to award certificates to deserving restaurants. On their return the project was abandoned.[112]
Soon thereafter, theMinistry of Labor createdKrua Thai Su Krua Lok ('Thai kitchen goes global'). Its centerpiece was a 10-day Thai cooking course for those who wanted to prepare Thai food overseas.[112] The effort was short-lived.
After some officials had a bad Thai meal abroad, in 2013 theYingluck administration had the idea of standardising Thai food everywhere. TheNational Food Institute (NFI) came up with a program calledRod Thai Tae ('authentic Thai taste').[112] A parallel effort was called the "Thai Delicious" project.
Thailand's National Innovation Agency (NIA), a public organization under the ThaiMinistry of Science and Technology, spearheaded a 30 million baht (US$1 million),[113] effort by the government to:
The agency has posted 11 "authentic" recipes fortom yam kung (nam sai),tom yam kung (nam khon),pad thai,Massaman curry,kaeng khiao wan (green curry),kaeng lueang (southern Thai sour curry),golek chicken sauce,khao soi,sai ua (northern Thai sausage),nam phrik num (green pepper chili paste), andnam phrik ong (northern Thai chili paste).[115] These recipes were featured at a gala dinner promoting "Authentic Thai Food for the World", held at thePlaza Athénée Hotel Bangkok on 24 August 2016 at which Thailand's Minister of Industry was the honored guest.[116] By 2020, Thai Delicious plans to post over 300 Thai food recipes.[117]
To determine authenticity, Thai researchers developed the "e-delicious machine", described as "...an intelligent robot that measures smell and taste in food ingredients through sensor technology in order to measure taste like a food critic."[118] The machine evaluates food by measuring its conductivity at different voltages. Readings from 10 sensors are combined to produce a chemical signature. Because the machine cannot judge taste, the food is compared with a standard derived from a database of popular preferences for each dish. Fortom yam, the spicy soup flavored withKaffir lime leaves andcoriander, researchers posted notices atChulalongkorn University in Bangkok, requesting 120 tasters. The tasters—students, university staff, and area workers—were paid a fewbaht for their opinions. They were served 10 differently prepared soups and rated each one. The winning soup was declared the standard, and its chemical characteristics were programmed into the machine. When testing food, the machine returns a numerical score from one to 100. A score lower than 80 is deemed "not up to standard". The machine cost about US$100,000 to develop.[113] Restaurants that follow officially sanctioned recipes can affix a "Thai Delicious" logo to their menus.[113] Each machine sold for 200,000baht. This project was shelved.[112]
The Thai Delicious project has been criticized, the main rationale being that "Standardisation is the enemy of Thai food."[119] Some observers think, however, that the quality of Thai food, at least in the US, is declining with its increased popularity,[120] a state of affairs that Thai Delicious aims to fix.
In August 2018, Thailand'sMinistry of Commerce kicked off a project called "Thai Select". It issues certificates in three grades to domestic Thai restaurants: gold (five stars); red (four stars); and orange (three stars). The goal is to enable tourists to Thailand to choose a worthy restaurant.[112]
Culture Minister Vira Rojpojchanarat announced in 2018 that between 2020 and 2024, his ministry will investigate ways to preserve authentic Thai cuisine from the increasing influence of foreign dishes. "Unique in its preparation with recipes handed down for generations, Thai culinary art needs better protection against foreign influences which are now changing the look and taste of certain local dishes," he warned. The plan will conform to theConvention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, initiated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The 2003 convention intends to protect the "uses, representations, expressions, knowledge and techniques that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals, recognised as an integral part of their cultural heritage".[121]
On average, Thai people consume 4,300 mg of sodium per day, twice theWHO's recommended maximum.[122] Thai street food is one of the top three contributors to high salt intake. ThePublic Health Ministry has embarked on a program to reduce the population's salt consumption by 30 percent.[123]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Apart from that, it is the Isan or northeastern Thai cuisine that reflects the essence of the arid Khorat Plaetau and its food sources. These are similar to the culture of Laos, enriched by the Khmer cuisine.
The royal tradition of palace food centered in the temple complex of Angkor Wat had a profound influence on Thai palace food.
When the Siamese defeated the Khmer, they brought back Khmer cooks. Thus, Thai palace cuisine was probably influenced by the imperial cuisine at Angkor Wat.
By contrast, the flavor principles of "Central Thai cuisine" (hereafter referred to simply as "Thai cuisine") are almost identical to those of neighboring Cambodia. The endless variations of sour fish soups or stews, along with the curries prepared with coconut milk (including the national dish amok), for example, will be familiar to anybody coming to Bangkok. One may well be surprised, though, to discover that Khmer cooks consider chili superfluous, like the liberal use of sugar, typical of modern Bangkok fare. The close culinary affinity becomes all the more apparent when contrasting the cuisine of Cambodia to that of Thailand's Northeast (and the related food of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Their flavour principles have little in common indeed. The reason for this affinity between Thai and Cambodian cuisine is most likely the pronounced, centuries-long contact between the empires of Angkor and Ayutthaya
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