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Part ofa series on the |
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| History of the Ottoman Empire |
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| Timeline (Territorial evolution) |
Rise(1299–1453) |
Classical Age(1453–1566)
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Transformation(1566–1703)
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Old Regime(1703–1789)
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Decline and Modernization(1789–1908)
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Dissolution(1908–1922)
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| Historiography (Ghaza,Decline) |
Theterritorial evolution of theOttoman Empire spans seven centuries.
The origins of the Ottomans can be traced back to the late 11th century when a few small Muslimemirates of Turkic origins and nomadic nature—calledBeyliks—started to be found in different parts ofAnatolia. Their main role was to defendSeljuk border areas with theByzantine Empire —a role reinforced by the migration of many Turks to Asia Minor.[1] However, in 1071 and following the victory of theSultanate of Rum over the Byzantines at theBattle of Manzikert, Beyliks sought an opportunity to override the Seljuk authority and declare their own sovereignty openly.
While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries, and theCrusades would contest the issue for some time, the victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkic ascendancy in Anatolia. The subsequent weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the political rivalry between the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and theFatimids in Egypt and southern Syria were the main factors that helped the Beyliks take advantage of the situation and unite their principalities.[2]
Among those principalities was a tribe calledSöğüt, founded and led byErtuğrul, which settled in the river valley ofSakarya. When Ertuğrul died c. 1280 his sonOsman succeeded him, establishing the state which would go on to become the Ottoman Empire.
Murad I (nicknamed Hüdavendigâr, fromPersian: خداوندگار, Khodāvandgār, "the devotee of God" – but meaning "sovereign" in this context) (Turkish:I. Murat Hüdavendigâr) (March or June 29, 1326,Sogut orBursa – June 28, 1389,Battle of Kosovo) (Ottoman Turkish:مراد الأول) was the ruler of theOttoman Empire,Sultan ofRûm, from 1359 to 1389. He was the son ofOrhan I and the Valide SultanNilüfer Hatun (whose name meansWater lily inTurkish), daughter of the Prince of Yarhisar orByzantine Princess Helen (also named Nilüfer), who was of ethnicGreek descent[3][4][5] and became the ruler following his father's death in 1359.
Mehmet II (Ottoman Turkish: محمد الثانى Meḥmed-isānī,Turkish:II. Mehmet), (also known asel-Fatih (الفاتح), "the Conqueror", inOttoman Turkish), or, in modernTurkish,Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432,Edirne – May 3, 1481, Hünkârcayırı, nearGebze) wasSultan of the Ottoman Empire (Rûm until the conquest) for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, heconquered Constantinople (on Tuesday, 29 May 1453), bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire.
Selim I (Ottoman Turkish: سليم اوّل,Modern Turkish:I. Selim) also known as "the Grim" or "the Brave", or the best translation "the Stern",Yavuz inTurkish, the long name isYavuz Sultan Selim; (1470/1 – September 22, 1520) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520.[6]
Selim's father was Bayezid II and his mother wasAyşe Hatun, fromDulkadirids.
Selim carried the empire to the leadership of theSunni branch of Islam by his conquest of the Middle East. He represents a sudden change in theexpansion policy of the empire, which before his reign had mostly worked against the West and theBeyliks.[7] On the eve of his death in 1520, theOttoman Empire spanned almost 1,000 million acres (4,000,000 km2) (trebling during Selim's reign). These included some dependent, vassal states such as like Walachia from 1396, Crimea Khanate from 1475, Moldavia from 1501and Algeria from 1520.
Suleiman I (Ottoman Turkish:سليمانSüleymān,Turkish:Süleyman; almost alwaysKanuni Sultan Süleyman) (6 November 1494 – 5/6/7 September 1566), was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th century Europe and personally led Ottoman armies to conquerBelgrade andRhodes, as well as most ofHungary. In 1541 he annexed central Hungary andTransylvania became an Ottomanvassal. However, the rest of theKingdom of Hungary, including western and northern (Upper) Hungary and Croatia, was still in Habsburg possession. Suleiman also conquered Iraq in his conflict with theSafavid dynasty. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from theMediterranean to theRed Sea and thePersian Gulf.[8] Places which make up modern dayKuwait,Saudi Arabia andQatar came under the control of the Ottomans.
TheTreaty of Zohab (or theTreaty of Qasr-e-Shirin) was an accord signed betweenSafavidPersia and theOttoman Empire on May 17, 1639. This accord ended thewar that had begun in 1623 and was the last conflict in almost 150 years of intermittent wars between the two states over territorial disputes. The treaty divided territories in the Middle East by grantingYerevan in the southernCaucasus toIran and all ofMesopotamia (includingBaghdad) to the Ottomans.
In 1672 the Ottomans underSultan Mehmed IV and Grand VizierFadil Ahmad Pasha conqueredPodolia from thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
TheTreaty of Bakhchisarai was signed in Bakhchisaray after theRusso-Turkish War (1676–1681) on January 3, 1681 by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and the Crimean Khanate. They agreed to a 20-year truce and had accepted the Dnieper River as the demarcation line between the Ottoman Empire and Moscow's domain. All sides agreed not to settle the territory between the Southern Buh and Dnieper rivers. After the signing of the treaty, the Nogai hordes still retained the right to live as nomads in the southern steppes of Ukraine, while the Cossacks retained the right to fish in the Dnieper and its tributaries; to obtain salt in the south; and to sail on the Dnieper and the Black Sea. The sultan then recognized Muscovy's sovereignty in the Left-bank Ukraine region and the Zaporozhian Cossack domain, while the southern part of theKiev region, the Bratslav region, andPodolia were left under Ottoman control. The1683 battle of Vienna effectively ended Ottoman threats towardsCentral Europe, even though the empire remained strong in theBalkans for another hundred years. In thebattle of Párkány the Ottoman lost the city ofEsztergom.
TheTreaty (Peace) of Karlowitz (Karlovci) was signed on January 26, 1699 inSremski Karlovci (Serbian Cyrillic: Сремски Карловци,Croatian:Srijemski Karlovci, German:Karlowitz,Turkish:Karlofça,Hungarian:Karlóca), a town in modern-daySerbia, concluding theAustro-Ottoman War of 1683–1697 in which the Ottoman side had finally been defeated at theBattle of Zenta.
Following a two-month congress between the Ottoman Empire on one side and the Holy League of 1684, a coalition of various European powers including the Habsburg Monarchy, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Republic of Venice and Peter I's Alekseyevich (later known as The Great) Muscovite Russia, largely due to claims of being a self-professed defender of the Christian Slavs, a treaty was signed on January 26, 1699. The Ottomans ceded most of Hungary, Transylvania and Slavonia to Austria while Podolia returned to Poland. Most of Dalmatia passed to Venice, along with the Morea (thePeloponnesus peninsula) andCrete, which the Ottomans regained in the Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718.
TheTreaty of Passarowitz orTreaty of Požarevac was thepeace treaty signed inPožarevac (SerbianCyrillic: Пожаревац, German:Passarowitz,Turkish:Pasarofça,Hungarian:Pozsarevác), a town in modernSerbia, on July 21, 1718 between theOttoman Empire on one side and theHabsburg monarchy ofAustria and theRepublic of Venice on the other.
During the years 1714–1718, the Ottomans had been successful against Venice inGreece andCrete, but had been defeated atPetrovaradin (1716) by the Austrian troops ofPrince Eugene of Savoy.
The treaty reflected the military situation. The Ottoman Empire lost theBanat of Temeswar, over a half of the territory ofSerbia (fromBelgrade to south ofKruševac), a tiny strip of northernBosnia and Lesser Walachia (Oltenia) to Austria. Venice lost its possessions on thePeloponnesus peninsula and onCrete, gained by theTreaty of Karlowitz, retaining only theIonian Islands, cities ofPreveza andArta andDalmatia. Northern Bosnia, Serbia includingBelgrade and Lesser Walachia were regained by Ottoman Empire in 1739 by theTreaty of Belgrade.
TheTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca (also spelledKuchuk Kainarji) was signed on July 21, 1774, in Küçük Kaynarca,Dobruja (todayKaynardzha,Silistra Province, Bulgaria) between theRussian Empire (represented by Field-MarshalRumyantsev) and theOttoman Empire after the Ottoman Empire was defeated in theRusso-Turkish War of 1768–1774.[10]
The treaty was by far the most humiliating blow to the once-mighty Ottoman realm. The Ottomans ceded the part of theYedisan region between theDnieper andSouthern Bug rivers to Russia. This territory included the port ofKherson and gave the Russian Empire its first direct access to theBlack Sea. The treaty also gave Russia theCrimean ports ofKerch andEnikale and theKabarda region in theCaucasus.
The Ottomans also lost theCrimean Khanate, to which they were forced to grant independence. The Khanate, while nominally independent, was dependent on Russia and was formally annexed into the Russian Empire in 1783. The treaty also granted Russia several non-geographic items. It eliminated restrictions over Russian access to the Azov Sea (the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade had given Russia territory adjacent to the Azov Sea but had prohibited it from fortifying the area or using the sea for shipping.)
TheTreaty of Jassy, signed at Jassy (Iaşi) in Moldavia (presently in Romania), was a pact between the Russian and Ottoman Empires ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–92 and confirming Russia's increasing dominance in the Black Sea. The treaty was signed on January 9, 1792 by Grand Vizier Yusuf-Pasha and Prince Bezborodko (who had succeeded Prince Potemkin as the head of the Russian delegation when Potemkin died). The treaty recognized Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate and transferredYedisan to Russia making theDniester the Russo-Turkish frontier in Europe, and leaving the Asiatic frontier (Kuban River) to the East.
Led byNapoleon Bonaparte in 1798 France invadedEgypt but forced to leave in defeat by 1800.
The Turks struggle to hold ontoEgypt against a civil war between the Albanians, Mamelukes, and Turks.
TheTreaty of Bucharest between theOttoman Empire and theRussian Empire, was signed on May 28, 1812 inBucharest at the end of theRusso-Turkish War, 1806-1812. Under its terms, thePrut River became the border between the two empires, thus leavingBessarabia under Russian rule. Also, Russia obtained trading rights on theDanube. A truce was signed with therebelling Serbs and autonomy given toSerbia. The treaty, signed by the Russian commanderMikhail Kutuzov, was ratified byAlexander I of Russia just one day beforeNapoleon launched his invasion of Russia.
| Rise of nationalism in the Balkans Nationalism under theOttoman Empire |
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TheSecond Serbian Uprising (1815–1817) was a second phase of theSerbian revolution against theOttoman Empire, which erupted shortly after the re-annexation of the country to theOttoman Empire, in 1813. The occupation was enforced following the defeat of theFirst Serbian Uprising (1804–1813), during which Serbia existed as ade facto independent state for over a decade. The second revolution ultimately resulted in Serbian semi-independence from theOttoman Empire.Principality of Serbia was established, governed by its own Parliament, Constitution and its own royal dynasty.De jure independence followed during the second half of the 19th century.
But another, more serious matter enraged the Dey. France had the commercial concession of a stockhouse inLa Calle, and, by the intermediary of its representative Deval, had engaged itself not to fortify it. However, Paris did not respect its engagements. The Dey first requested explanations by sending a letter to the French government, who chose not to respond to him. Thus, the Dey orally asked the reasons behind this disrespect of their conventions to the French consul, who refused to respond to him.
The Dey responded to French disdain by hitting the consul Deval with his fan on April 30, 1827. This led to the rupture of diplomatic relations between France and the Dey, although the financial dealings between Deval and the Bacri-Busnach, as well as the Calle fortifications affairs were the real causes of the hostility.
Thereafter, the government ofCharles X (1824–1830) took the "fan affair" ("l'affaire de l'éventail") as a pretext to invade Algeria and castigate the Dey for his "impudence." The French consul and residents took off for France, while theMinister of War,Clermont-Tonnerre, proposed a military expedition. Theultra-royalistCount of Villèle, President of the Council, and the monarch's heir opposed themselves to it. The Restoration finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. But the important tonnage ofFrench ships forced them to keep away from the coasts[vague], while theBarbary pilots could easily exploit the geography of the coast. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on January 31, 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers.
The French troops took the advantage on June 19, during the battle of Staoueli, and entered in Algiers on July 5, 1830, after a three-week campaign. The Dey Hussein accepted capitulation in exchange of his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, on board of a French ship heading for the Italian peninsula, then under the control of the Austrian Empire. 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia, on July 11,. After 313 years of occupation, the Ottomans abandoned the Regency in Algiers and therefore the administration of the country, which they had taken care of since 1517.
TheCrimean War (1853–1856) was fought between Imperial Russia on one side and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Most of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, with additional actions occurring in western Turkey, the Baltic Sea region andKamchatka.
The electors in bothMoldavia andWallachia chose in 1859 the same person –Alexandru Ioan Cuza.
On February 5, 1862 (January 24, Old Style) the two principalities ofMoldavia andWallachia were formally united to form Romania, with Bucharest as its capital.
Ending theRusso-Turkish War, 1877–78 theTreaty of Berlin was the final Act of theCongress of Berlin (June 13 – July 13, 1878), by which theUnited Kingdom,Austria-Hungary,France,Germany,Italy,Russia and theOttoman Empire underAbdul Hamid II revised theTreaty of San Stefano signed on March 3, of the same year.
The treaty recognized the complete independence of the principalities ofRomania,Serbia andMontenegro and the autonomy ofBulgaria, though the latter remained under formalOttoman overlordship and was divided between the Principality of Bulgaria and the autonomous province ofEastern Rumelia. The WesternGreat Powers immediately rejected the Treaty of San Stefano: they feared that a large Slavic country in theBalkans would serve Russian interests. Most of northernThrace was included in the autonomous region of Eastern Rumelia, whereas the rest of Thrace and all ofMacedonia were returned under the sovereignty of the Ottomans.
On the other hand, between 1840-1880 period; Ottoman vassal-Khedivate of Egypt and Ottoman troops conquered Soudan,some parts of Ethiophia, Eritrea and Northern Somalia. They co-administrated these places.
With Egypt heading towards bankruptcy, the United Kingdom seized control of Egypt's government in 1882 to protect its financial interests, especially those in theSuez Canal. Shortly after its political intervention, Britain sent troops into Alexandria and the Canal Zone, taking advantage of Egypt's weak military. With the defeat of the Egyptian army at theBattle of Tel el-Kebir, British troops reached Cairo, eliminated the nationalist government and disbanded the Egyptian military. Technically, Egypt remained an Ottoman province until 1914, when Britain formally declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed Egypt's last khedive, Abbas II. His uncle, Husayn Kamil, was appointed as Sultan in his place. But in reality Egypt and Soudan was lost to the Turks.
After that, Britain involved to Mehdis War in Soudan. In 3 years time, Ottoman Empire lost all co-administrated territories with Egypt in Africa such as North Somalia, Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia. The last only remnant Ottoman territory in Africa was "Ottoman Tripolitania."
TheYoung Turk revolution resulted in the loss of the Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina toAustria-Hungary, which at any rate had militarily occupied the region since 1878. Moreover, the tributaryPrincipality of Bulgaria declared independence from the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria simultaneously annexed the autonomous Ottoman Province ofEastern Rumelia (of which the Prince of Bulgaria had been Governor-General since 1885). Thus was Bulgaria lost to the Ottomans after more than 500 years of continuous rule.
The Italo-Turkish orTurco-Italian War (also known in Italy asguerra di Libia, "the Libyan war", and in Turkey asTrablusgarp Savaşı) was fought between the Ottoman Empire and Italy from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912. Italy seized the Ottoman provinces ofTripolitania andCyrenaica, together forming what became known as Libya.There was no longer any Ottoman territory left in Africa. Following theFirst Balkan War, the AutonomousPrincipality of Samos, an Ottoman tributary state, was annexed to Greece in November 1912. See figure, right.
Italy also gained the primarily Greek-speakingDodecanese archipelago near Anatolia, including the Isle of Rhodes. See figure, below.
TheBalkan Wars were two wars inSoutheast Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which theBalkan League (Bulgaria,Montenegro,Greece, andSerbia) first conqueredOttoman-heldMacedonia, Albania and most ofThrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils. In theFirst Balkan War, the Ottomans lost practically all of their remaining territory in Europe, with the exception of Constantinople and its immediate environs. In theSecond Balkan War, they recaptured some land to the north and west up to Adrianople (Edirne), comprising modern-dayEast Thrace.
After the Second Balkan War, the Ottomans were removed fromAlbania and there was a possibility of some of the lands being absorbed by Serbia and the southern tip by Greece. This decision angered the Italians, who did not want Serbia to have an extended coastline, and it also angered the Austro-Hungarians, who did not want a powerful Serbia on their southern border. Despite Serbian, Montenegrin, and Greek occupation forces on the ground, and under immense pressure from Austria-Hungary, it was decided that the country should not be divided but instead consolidated into the Principality of Albania. In the aftermath of the Balkan wars, Crete joined Greece on December 1, 1913.
Ibn Saud completed his conquest of the Nejd and the eastern coast of Arabia in 1912 and in 1913 took Al-Hasa from Ottomans who had controlled the area since 1871.
Following the Ottoman declaration of war on the Allies in November 1914, Britain formally annexed Cyprus, which it had occupied since 1878. Egypt (along with the Sudan) also finally ceased to be de jure Ottoman territory at the same time, being elevated to aSultanate.
TheTreaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920) was thepeace treaty between theOttoman Empire andAllies at the end ofWorld War I. TheTreaty of Versailles was signed with Germany before this treaty to annul the German concessions including the economic rights and enterprises. Also, France, Great Britain and Italy signed a secret "Tripartite Agreement" at the same date.[11] The Tripartite Agreement confirmed Britain's oil and commercial concessions and turned the former German enterprises in the Ottoman Empire over to a Tripartite corporation. The open negotiations covered a period of more than fifteen months, beginning at theParis Peace Conference. The negotiations continued at theConference of London, and took definite shape only after the premiers' meeting at theSan Remo conference in April 1920. France, Italy, and Great Britain, however, had secretly begun thepartitioning of the Ottoman Empire as early as 1915. The delay was due to the fact that the powers could not come to an agreement which, in turn, hinged on the outcome of theTurkish national movement. The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of theTurkish War of Independence and the parties signed and ratified the supersedingTreaty of Lausanne in 1923.
TheTreaty of Lausanne (July 24, 1923) was apeace treaty signed inLausanne, Switzerland, that settled theAnatolian andEast Thrace parts of thepartition of the Ottoman Empire by annulment of theTreaty of Sèvres (1920) that was signed by theIstanbul-basedOttoman government; as the consequence of theTurkish War of Independence between theAllies of World War I and theAnkara-basedGrand National Assembly of Turkey (Turkish national movement) led byMustafa Kemal Atatürk.[12] Several provisions of the Lausanne Treaty support the continuity between the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic.[13] The treaty led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newRepublic of Turkey as thesuccessor of the Ottoman Empire.[14][15][16]
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