There are severaldisputed territories of India. Aterritorial dispute is a disagreement over the possession or control of land between two or more sovereign states or over the possession or control of land by a new state andoccupying power after it has conquered the land from a former state no longer currently recognized by the new state.
India faces territorial issues with some of its neighbours – thePeople's Republic of China,Pakistan andNepal.[1] The dispute with China also involves theRepublic of China based in Taiwan.[2] India has resolved its un-demarcated border withBhutan, which included multiple irregularities. India also resolved its border disputes withBangladesh andSri Lanka.
The territorial disputes between India and China result from thehistorical consequences of colonialism in Asia and the lack of clear historical boundary demarcations.[3]: 251 There was one historical attempt to set a proposed boundary, theMcMahon Line, by Great Britain during the1913-1914 Simla Convention.[3]: 251 TheRepublic of China rejected the proposed boundary.[3]: 251 The unresolved dispute over the boundary became contentious after India gained its independence and the People's Republic of China was established.[3]: 251 The disputed borders are complicated by the lack of administrative presence in the disputed areas, which are remote.[3]: 251
Two governments claim to be the legitimate Chinese government, thePeople's Republic of China (PRC) and theRepublic of China (ROC; commonly called "Taiwan"). They do not recognise the legitimacy of each other. The PRC has actual control of their areas on the India-China border, while the ROC currently has no shared land or maritime border with India. Their views are presented below. TheLine of Actual Control (LAC) is presently the operational border between India and the PRC.
TheDepsang Plains are located on the border of the Indian union territory ofLadakh and the disputed zone ofAksai Chin. TheChinese Army controls most of the plains,[4] while India controls the western portion of the plains.[5] The dispute remains unresolved.[6]
Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India created on 20 January 1972, located in the far northeast. It borders the states ofAssam andNagaland to the south, and shares international borders withBurma in the east,Bhutan in the west, and China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by China, by whom it is calledSouth Tibet. The northern border of Arunachal Pradesh reflects theMcMahon Line, a line demarcated by the 1914Simla Convention between theUnited Kingdom and theTibetan government. The Simla Convention was never accepted by the Chinese government, and it was also considered invalid by Tibetans due to unmet conditions specified in the treaty.[7] The boundary was not broadly enforced by the Indian government until 1950. Currently, this territory is administered by India.[8][9]
Throughout the Cold War, theGovernment of the Republic of China had the same understanding on the China-India border dispute as the PRC.[2] In 1962, theROC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that they did not recognise the legality of theMcMahon Line. The same year western countries increased pressure on ROC leaderChiang Kai-shek to recognise the legality of the McMahon Line in order to isolate Beijing.[2] However, Chiang dismissed the McMahon Line as an 'imperialist imposition on China'. In February 1987, India's move to elevate the status of 'Arunachal centrally administered region' to the state ofArunachal Pradesh was declared null and void by the ROC'sMinistry of Foreign Affairs.[2] The Ministry, in a formal statement, stated that it did not recognise the 'illegal occupation' of ROC territory south of the McMahon Line and that the establishment of 'Arunachal Pradesh state' was an illegal act. In 1995, AmbassadorTeng Pei-Yin (the ROC's first representative to India) in response to an Indian member of parliament, stated that the ROC did not recognise the McMahon Line.[2] However, the ROC has not made any statement on the China-India dispute since.[2]
TheChinese Military has an integratedWestern Theater Command across the entire border with India.[10] TheIndian Military has divided the Line of Actual Control into 3 sectors – thewestern sector acrossLadakh and the Chinese-held Aksai Chin, thecentral sector acrossHimachal Pradesh andUttarakhand, and theeastern sector acrossSikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.[11] Similarly, theIndian Airforce has aNew Delhi-basedWestern Air Command, aPrayagraj-basedCentral Air Command, and aShillong-basedEastern Air Command with several AFS (Air Force Stations/Bases), AGL (Advanced Landing Ground airports) and helipads to cover the LAC.
List of disputed areas from west to east along the India-China border:[12]
| Disputed area | Administrative | Controlled by | Airbases / AGLs | Comments / Geostrategic context | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| India | China | India | China | |||
| Trans-Karakoram Tract (Shaksgam) | Ladakh (Leh district) | Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region | China (since 1963) | Daulat Beg Oldi | Ceded to China in 1963 by Pakistan subject to the resolution of Kashmir dispute with India.[12] Ref:[13][14][15][16] | |
| Aksai Chin | Ladakh (Leh district) | Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region | China | Daulat Beg Oldi AGL,Leh Airport | Ref:[17][12] | |
| Demchok sector | Ladakh (Leh district) | Tibet Autonomous Region (Ngari Prefecture) | India and China south and north of theIndus River respectively. | Fukche[17] | Ref:[12] | |
| Chumar (2 separate noncontiguousChumur North &Chumur South subsectors) | Ladakh (Leh district) | Tibet Autonomous Region | India | Nyoma,[17]Padum AGL,[17] helipad at Chumur. | Ref:[12] | |
| Kaurik | Himachal Pradesh (Lahaul and Spiti district)[12] | Tibet Autonomous Region | India | Chinyalisaur Airport AGL,Pathankot Airport | Ref:[12] | |
| Tashigang-Shipki La | Himachal Pradesh (Kinnaur district) | Tibet Autonomous Region | India | Chinyalisaur AGL, Pathankot Airport | Shipki La, with Indian military post, is an important pass for trade. Ref:[12][18] | |
| Sang-Nelang-Pulam Sumda | Uttarakhand (Uttarkashi district) | Tibet Autonomous Region | India | Chinyalisaur AGL, Pathankot Airport | Area also covers Jadhang village. Ref:[12] | |
| Barahoti | Uttarakhand (Chamoli district) | Tibet Autonomous Region | India[12] | Chinyalisaur AGL,Pithoragarh Airport AGL | Area also coversLapthal, Sangcha Malla, Silakang villages.[12] Ref:[12] | |
| Arunachal Pradesh | Arunachal Pradesh | Tibet Autonomous Region | India | Tawang AFS & 7 AGLs[19] (Aalo,Mechuka,Pasighat,Tuting,Vijoynagar,Walong,Ziro) | Most of the state is claimed by China.[12] Ref:[12] | |
Within the geostrategic context of disputes between India and China, the disputes overDoklam and theTen Degree Channel andSouth China Sea shipping lane are also relevant. Doklam is a dispute between Bhutan and China near the India-Bhutan-China tri-junction. India has sided with Bhutan in the dispute.[20][21] The area is of strategic importance to all three countries.[22] Doklam lies close to India'sSiliguri "Chickenneck" Corridor where a Chinese military advance of less than 130 kilometres (81 mi) would cut off Bhutan, part ofWest Bengal and all ofNortheast India, an area containing almost 50 million people. This scenario arose during the war between India and China in 1962.[23][18] India has embarked on a slew ofNortheastern India connectivity projects to create multiple alternatives to the Silliguri corridor, including through Bangladesh, National Waterways and seaports, to mitigate the risk of being cut off.[citation needed]
The world's busiestSea line of communication (SLOC) passes through theStrait of Malacca and theTen Degree Channel in theexclusive economic zone of India, a region protected by India'sAndaman and Nicobar Command. It is a geostrategicchoke point for China since over 94,000 merchant ships travel through every year, carrying 40% of the world's freight trade between China and other nations.[24] US$5 trillion in annual shipping trade passes through the SLOC and choke points ofSoutheast Asia and the South China Sea (SCS).[25][26] 80% of global trade passes through the Indian Ocean SLOC in the form of oil and natural gas critical for advanced economies.[26] India,Australia,Japan and theUnited States have comprised theQuadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) to contain China as part of theirIndo-Pacific strategy.[27][28][29][30]
The conflict overKashmir is primarily between India andPakistan, with China largely playing a third-party role.[31][32] Conflict started after thepartition of India in 1947, as both India and Pakistan initially claimed the entirety of the former princely state ofJammu and Kashmir. In 1963, Pakistanrecognized Chinese sovereignty over theTrans-Karakoram Tract and Aksai Chin.[14] India controls 70% of Kashmir's population and approximately 55% of its land area includingJammu,Kashmir Valley, most of Ladakh, andSiachen Glacier.[33] Pakistan controls approximately 30% of the land includingJammu and Kashmir andGilgit-Baltistan. China controls the remaining 15% of the land, including Aksai Chin and the mostly uninhabited Trans-Karakoram Tract, as well as part of theDemchok sector.[34][35][36][37][38][39]
Sir Creek is a 96 km (60 mi)tidal estuary in the uninhabited marshlands of theIndus River Delta on the border between India and Pakistan. It flows into theArabian Sea and separatesGujarat state inIndia fromSindh province inPakistan.[40] The long-standing India-Pakistan Sir Creek border dispute stems from the demarcation "from the mouth of Sir Creek to the top of Sir Creek, and from the top of Sir Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus".[40][41] From this point onward, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.[42]
In a new political map released in 2020, Pakistan claimed the former princely states ofJunagadh andManavadar.[43][44][45]
Major areas of dispute between India and Nepal areKalapani, Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh,Susta, Mechi, and Tanakpur.[46] An estimated 60,000 hectares of border land is currently disputed between India and Nepal.[47]
Although claimed by Nepal,Kalapani has been administered by Indian army since the1962 border war with China and Indian maps have been showing Kalapani as part of India since then.[46] The 1816Treaty of Sugauli signed byKingdom of Nepal andBritish India in 1816 utilizes theKali River as Nepal's western boundary with India. However, lack of consensus on what is the precise location of the river Kali has resulted in dispute over whether the land consisting Kalapani,Limpiyadhura andLipulekh is part of India or Nepal.[48] Some scholars suggest that the lack of consensus is because of British cartographers who kept on shifting the line demarcating the river eastwards for strategic reasons. However, there are also some scholars who believe that lack of consensus is due to the shift in the course of the river over time.[48]
In November 2019, India issued a new political map of the country which, like earlier maps, showed Kalapani as part of India. This new map was rejected by Nepal, and mass protest against India took place across the country and outside the Indian embassy in Nepal. Protesters accused India of occupying their land.[49] In May 2020, the Indian Defence minister,Rajnath Singh inaugurated an 80 km road fromDharchula to Lipulekh pass. Nepal protested against the construction of the road.[50] The Lipulekh area is currently under India's control. On 20 May 2020, Nepal launched its own map showing Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh as parts of its own territory.[51] The new map was subsequently approved by theNepali parliament on 18 June 2020. India opposed the move, claiming that the decision to include Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Kalapani is not based on evidence or historical facts.[52]
On 15 June 2020, the Indian border police,Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB), reported thatborder pillars which served as demarcation were missing along the India-Nepal border. SSB also reported that Nepali border police had established five newborder outposts near the disputed area.[53] On 19 June, Nepal started deploying troops near the disputed areas. The troops had established camps and they were working on building ahelipad in the area.[54] In the same month Nepali Army Chief, GeneralPurna Chandra Thapa, after visiting the Kalapani border area, stated that theNepali Army will start building army barracks and border outposts near the Kalapani area.[55] On 21 June, Indian residents in border villages of Dharchula and Jhoolaghat inPithoragarh district claimed that radio stations in Nepal were conducting a propaganda campaign against India by playing anti-India songs and biased news bulletins showing India in a bad light.[56]
Susta is another territory which is disputed between Nepal and India. It is currently controlled by India as a part ofBihar state.[57] The 1816Treaty of Sugauli definedGandaki River as the international boundary between India and Nepal. The right bank of the river was under Nepal's control while the left bank was under India's control. Susta village was initially on the right bank when the treaty was signed and it was a part of Nepal. However, over the years, the Gandaki River changed its course and Susta moved to the left bank and is now currently under India's control.[57] TheGovernment of Nepal has repeatedly stated that Susta belongs to Nepal and that the Indian government should return the area.[citation needed]
The dispute on the status of the island ofKachatheevu was settled in 1974 by an agreement between both countries.[58] But still some cases are ongoing inHigh Court of Madras which are filed earlier regarding this dispute stating as illegally issued toSri Lanka.[59] Several actions were still taken by theunion government of India to retrieve that island back to Indian territory once again.[60]
South Talpatti (as it was known internationally) or Sheikh Mujib Island (as it was known by BangladeshiAwami League supporters) was a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in theBay of Bengal, off the coast of theGanga-Brahmaputra Delta region. In the aftermath of theBhola cyclone in 1970, it emerged in the Bay of Bengal on theBangladeshi side of the dividing river, and disappeared before or duringCyclone Aila in 2009. In March 2010, Sugata Hazra of the School of Oceanographic Studies atJadavpur University,Kolkata, said that the island had disappeared and thatsea level rise caused by climate change was a factor.[61]
The enclaves were reputedly part of a high stake card or chess games centuries ago between two regional kings, the Maharaja ofCooch Behar and the Nawab ofRangpur and the result of a confused outcome of a treaty between the Kingdom of Cooch Behar and theMughal Empire. After thepartition of India in 1947,Cooch Behar district joined India and Rangpur went toEast Pakistan, which became Bangladesh in 1971. The prime ministers of India and Bangladesh signed a Land Boundary Agreement in 1974 to exchange enclaves and simplify the international border. In 1974, Bangladesh approved a proposed treaty to exchange all enclaves within each other's territories, but India did not ratify it. Another agreement was made in 2011 to exchange enclaves and adverse possessions. A revised version of the agreement was finally adopted by the two countries 41 years after negotiations began, when the Parliament of India passed the 100th Amendment Act to the Indian Constitution on 7 May 2015.[62] Inside the main part ofBangladesh, there were 111 Indian enclaves (17,160.63 acres), while in the main part of India, there were 51 Bangladeshi enclaves (7,110.02 acres). In respect of adverse possessions, India received 2,777.038 acres of land and transferred 2267.682 acres to Bangladesh. India ratified the agreement by constitutional amendment in May 2015.[63] Under this agreement, the enclave residents could continue to reside at their present location or move to the country of their choice.[64][65] Theadverse possession of Berubari went to Bangladesh.[66] The unmarked borders between the nations were also finally solved regarding Daikhata-Dumabari, Muhurichar river island[67] and Pyrdiwah.[68]
In 2009, Bangladesh initiated arbitration proceedings against India under theUnited Nations Convention on Law of Sea. In 2014 it was awarded a large part of the Bay of Bengal, ending the maritime dispute between the two countries.[69]
The Shaksgam Valley was never part of Kashmir and the northern and eastern boundaries of Kashmir were undefined
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India now holds about 55% of the old state of Kashmir, Pakistan 30%, and China 15%.
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