Inarchaeology andart history, "terracotta" is often used to describe objects such as figurines andloom weights not made on apotter's wheel, with vessels and other objects made on a wheel from the same material referred to as earthenware; the choice of term depends on the type of object rather than the material or shaping technique.[8]
This article covers the sense of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in theTerracotta Army andGreek terracotta figurines, and architectural decoration. Neitherpottery such as utilitarian earthenware nor East Asian and European sculpture inporcelain are covered.
Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations ofMohenjo-daro,Pakistan (3000–1500 BCE). Along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult.[12] TheBurney Relief is an outstanding terracotta plaque fromAncient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BCE. InMesoamerica, the great majority ofOlmec figurines were in terracotta. Manyushabti mortuary statuettes were also made of terracotta inAncient Egypt.
Terracotta has been a medium for art since theHarappan civilization, although techniques used differed in each time period. In theMauryan times, they were mainly figures of mother goddesses, indicating a fertility cult. Moulds were used for the face, whereas the body was hand-modelled. In theShungan times, a single mould was used to make the entire figure and depending upon the baking time, the colour differed from red to light orange. TheSatavahanas used two different moulds- one for the front and the other for the back and kept a piece of clay in each mould and joined them together, making some artefacts hollow from within. SomeSatavahana terracotta artefacts also seem to have a thin strip of clay joining the two moulds. This technique may have been imported from the Romans and is seen nowhere else in the country.[13]
Contemporary centres for terracotta figurines includeWest Bengal,Bihar,Jharkhand,Rajasthan andTamil Nadu. InBishnupur, West Bengal, the terracotta pattern–panels on the temples are known for their intricate details. TheBankura Horse is also very famous and belongs to the Bengal school of terracotta.Madhya Pradesh is one of the most prominent production centres of terracotta art today. The tribes of theBastar have a rich tradition. They make intricate designs and statues of animals and birds. Hand-painted clay and terracotta products are produced inGujarat. TheAiyanar cult inTamil Nadu is associated with life-size terracotta statues.[14]
Traditional terracotta sculptures, mainly religious, also continue to be made. The demand for this craft is seasonal, reaching its peak during the harvest festival, when new pottery and votive idols are required. During the rest of the year, the makers rely on agriculture or some other means of income. The designs are often redundant as crafters apply similar reliefs and techniques for different subjects. Customers suggest subjects and uses for each piece.[15]
To sustain the legacy, the Indian Government has established theSanskriti Museum of Indian Terracotta inNew Delhi. The initiative encourages ongoing work in this medium through displays terracotta from different sub-continent regions and periods. In 2010, the India Post Service issued a stamp commemorating the craft which shows a terracotta doll from the craft museum.[citation needed]
Chinese sculpture made great use of terracotta, with and without glazing and color, from a very early date. The famousTerracotta Army of EmperorQin Shi Huang, 209–210 BCE, was somewhat untypical, and two thousand years agoreliefs were more common, in tombs and elsewhere. Later Buddhist figures were often made in painted and glazed terracotta, with theYixian glazed pottery luohans, probably of 1150–1250, now in various Western museums, among the most prominent examples.[16] Brick-built tombs from theHan dynasty were often finished on the interior wall with bricks decorated on one face; the techniques included molded reliefs. Later tombs contained many figures of protective spirits and animals and servants for the afterlife, including the famous horses of theTang dynasty; as an arbitrary matter of terminology these tend not to be referred to as terracottas.[17]
Precolonial West African sculpture also made extensive use of terracotta.[18] The regions most recognized for producing terracotta art in that part of the world include theNok culture of central and north-centralNigeria, theIfe-Benin cultural axis in western and southern Nigeria (also noted for its exceptionally naturalistic sculpture), and theIgbo culture area of eastern Nigeria, which excelled in terracotta pottery. These related, but separate, traditions also gave birth to elaborate schools of bronze and brass sculpture in the area.[19]
TheAncient Greeks'Tanagra figurines were mass-produced mold-cast and fired terracotta figurines, that seem to have been widely affordable in theHellenistic period, and often purely decorative in function. They were part of a wide range ofGreek terracotta figurines, which included larger and higher-quality works such as theAphrodite Heyl; the Romans too made great numbers of small figurines, which were often used in a religious context as cult statues or temple decorations.[20]Etruscan art often used terracotta in preference to stone even for larger statues, such as the near life-sizeApollo of Veii and theSarcophagus of the Spouses.Campana reliefs are Ancient Roman terracottareliefs, originally mostly used to makefriezes for the outside of buildings, as a cheaper substitute for stone.
Europeanmedieval art made little use of terracotta sculpture, until the late 14th century, when it became used in advancedInternational Gothic workshops in parts of Germany.[21] The Virgin illustrated at the start of the article fromBohemia is the unique example known from there.[1] A few decades later, there was a revival in theItalian Renaissance, inspired byexcavated classical terracottas as well as the German examples, which gradually spread to the rest of Europe. InFlorence,Luca della Robbia (1399/1400–1482) was a sculptor who founded a family dynasty specializing in glazed and painted terracotta, especially large roundels which were used to decorate the exterior of churches and other buildings. These used the same techniques as contemporarymaiolica and othertin-glazed pottery. Other sculptors includedPietro Torrigiano (1472–1528), who produced statues, and in England busts of the Tudor royal family. The unglazed busts of the Roman Emperors adorningHampton Court Palace, byGiovanni da Maiano, 1521, were another example of Italian work in England.[22] They were originally painted but this has now been lost from weathering.
In the 18th-century unglazed terracotta, which had long been used for preliminary clay models ormaquettes that were then fired, became fashionable as a material for small sculptures including portrait busts. It was much easier to work than carved materials, and allowed a more spontaneous approach by the artist.[23]Claude Michel (1738–1814), known asClodion, was an influential pioneer inFrance.[24]John Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770), a Flemish portrait sculptor working in England, sold his terracottamodelli for larger works in stone, and produced busts only in terracotta.[25] In the next century the French sculptorAlbert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse made many terracotta pieces,[26] but possibly the most famous isThe Abduction of Hippodameia depicting the Greek mythological scene of a centaur kidnapping Hippodameia on her wedding day.
Imperial roof decoration in theForbidden CityOne of two terracotta relief sculptures, "Events in the Life of John Wesley", in the porch of Methodist Central Hall, Birmingham, England
Architectural terracotta is a broad term encompassing a wide ranging variety of clay-based architectural elements such as wall reliefs, decorative roof elements, and architectural sculpture.
Many ancient and traditional roofing styles included more elaborate sculptural elements than the plainroof tiles, such as ChineseImperial roof decoration and theantefix of westernclassical architecture. In IndiaWest Bengal made a speciality of terracotta temples, with the sculpted decoration from the same material as the main brick construction.
Architectural terracotta experienced a resurgence in western architecture starting in the mid-19th century.[27] Starting in Europe, architects designed elaborate buildings relying on terracotta detailing for their facades.James Taylor was one of the first producers of architectural terracotta to find success in the United States, using his experience manufacturing the material in England to guide his work in North America.[10]
TheGreat Chicago Fire of 1871 led to increased demand for fireproof materials in urban settings, and helped drive the following push for architectural terracotta throughout North America. The material remained popular through the early 1900s, with its versatility allowing it to support a variety of architectural styles such as Rennaissance revival,neo-Gothic, andArt deco.[10]
Emerging trends inModernist architecture favoring the use of concrete and glass significantly reduced demand for architectural terracotta starting in the 1930s.[28] In the time since, the material has experienced a resurgence of interest, favored for work inpostmodern andrevivalist architectural styles.[10]
Unlike art and pottery terracotta, clays used for architectural terracotta can range from dark-bodiedstonewares to light-bodiedwhitewares, ranging depending on what is required for their particular application.[10]
The clays are usually fired to or nearvitrification in order to survive continued exposure to harsh outdoor conditions such asfreeze-thaw cycles and salt intrusion.[10] Contrary to popular belief, glazing does not seal terracotta from water penetration and a non-porous clay body is necessary to prevent failure from these issues.[29]
After drying, it is placed in akiln or, more traditionally, in apit covered with combustible material, thenfired. The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), though it may be as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F) in historic and archaeological examples.[32] During this process, the iron oxides in the body reacts with oxygen, often resulting in the reddish colour known asterracotta. However, color can vary widely, including shades of yellow, orange, buff, red, pink, grey or brown.[32]
A final method is to carve fired bricks or other terracotta shapes. This technique is less common, but examples can be found in thearchitecture of Bengal onHindu temples and mosques.
Terracotta is notwatertight, but its porousness decreases when the body issurface-burnished before firing.Glazes can be used to decrease permeability and hence increase watertightness.
Unglazed terracotta is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water (an archaic use), for garden pots andirrigation or building decoration in many environments, and for oil containers, oil lamps, or ovens. Most other uses require the material to be glazed, such as tableware, sanitary piping, or building decorations built for freezing environments.
Terracotta will also ring if lightly struck, as long as it is not cracked.[33]
Painted (polychrome) terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat ofgesso, then painted. It is widely used, but only suitable for indoor positions and much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculptures in the West were rarely left in their "raw" fired state until the 18th century.[34]
As compared tobronze sculpture, terracotta uses a far simpler and quicker process for creating the finished work with much lower material costs. The easier task of modelling, typically with a limited range of knives and wooden shaping tools, but mainly using the fingers,[35] allows the artist to take a more free and flexible approach. Small details that might be impractical to carve in stone, of hair or costume for example, can easily be accomplished in terracotta, and drapery can sometimes be made up of thin sheets of clay that make it much easier to achieve a realistic effect.[36]
Reusable mold-making techniques may be used for production of many identical pieces. Compared tomarble sculpture and other stonework, the finished product is far lighter and may be further painted and glazed to produce objects with color or durable simulations of metal patina. Robust durable works for outdoor use require greater thickness and so will be heavier, with more care needed in the drying of the unfinished piece to prevent cracking as the material shrinks. Structural considerations are similar to those required for stone sculpture; there is a limit on the stress that can be imposed on terracotta, and terracotta statues of unsupported standing figures are limited to well under life-size unless extra structural support is added. This is also because large figures are extremely difficult to fire, and surviving examples often show sagging or cracks.[37] TheYixian figures were fired in several pieces, and have iron rods inside to hold the structure together.[38]
^"Terracotta", p. 341, Delahunty, Andrew,From Bonbon to Cha-cha: Oxford Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases, 2008, OUP Oxford,ISBN0199543690, 9780199543694;book
^'Technical Trends Of Cottage Ceramic Industries In Southwestern Nigeria' Journal of Visual Art and Design. Segun Oladapo Abiodun. Vol. 10, No. 1, 2018
^'Mechanisms To Improve Energy Efficiency In Small Industries. Part Two: Pottery In India And Khurja' A. Rath, DFID Project R7413. Policy Research International
^Scultz; Hobson, R.L. (May 1914). "A New Chinese Masterpiece in the British Museum".TheBurlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. Vol. 25, no. 134. p. 70.JSTOR859579.
Draper, James David and Scherf, Guilhem (eds.),Playing with Fire: European Terracotta Models, 1740-1840, 2003, Metropolitan Museum of Art,ISBN1588390993, 9781588390998,fully available on Google books
Guidance on Matching Terracotta Practical guidance on the repair and replacement of historic terracotta focusing on the difficulties associated with trying to match new to old
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