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Tengu (/ˈtɛŋɡuː/TENG-goo;Japanese:天狗,pronounced[teŋɡɯ],lit. 'Heavenly Dog') are a type oflegendary creature found inShinto belief. They are considered a type ofyōkai (supernatural beings) or Shintokami (gods or spirits).[1] TheTengu were originally thought to take the forms ofbirds of prey and amonkey deity, and they were traditionally depicted with human, monkey, and avian characteristics.Sarutahiko Ōkami is considered to be the original model of Konoha-Tengu (a supernatural creature with a red face and long nose), which today is widely considered theTengu's defining characteristic in the popular imagination. He is the Shintomonkey deity who is said to shed light onHeaven andEarth. Some experts theorize that Sarutahiko was asun god worshiped in theIse region prior to the popularization ofAmaterasu.
Buddhism long held that theTengu were disruptivedemons andharbingers of war. Their image gradually softened, however, into one of protective, if still dangerous, spirits of the mountains and forests.Tengu are associated with theascetic practice ofShugendō, and they are usually depicted in the garb of its followers, theyamabushi.[2]
Thetengu in art appears in a variety of shapes. It usually falls somewhere in between a large, monstrous bird and a whollyanthropomorphized being, often with a red face or an unusually large or long nose. Early depictions of tengu show them askite-like beings who can take a human-like form, often retaining avian wings, heads, or beaks. Thetengu's long nose seems to have been conceived in the 14th century, likely as a humanization of the original bird's bill.[3] This feature allies them with theSarutahiko Ōkami, who is described in the 720 CE text theNihon Shoki with a similar nose measuring seven hand-spans in length.[4] In villagefestivals, the two figures are often portrayed with identical red phallic-nosed mask designs.[5]
Some of the earliest representations oftengu appear in Japanese picture scrolls, such as the Tenguzōshi Emaki (天狗草子絵巻), paintedc. 1296, which parodies high-ranking priests by endowing them with the hawk-like beaks oftengu demons.[6]
Tengu are often pictured as taking the shape of some sort of priest. Beginning in the 13th century, tengu came to be associated in particular withyamabushi, the mountain ascetics who practiceShugendō.[7] The association soon found its way into Japanese art, where tengu are most frequently depicted in the yamabushi's unique costume, which includes a distinctive headwear called the tokin and a pompom sash (結袈裟,yuigesa).[8] Due to their priestly aesthetic, they are often shown wielding thekhakkhara, a distinct staff used byBuddhist monks, called ashakujō in Japanese.[citation needed]
Tengu are commonly depicted holding a magical feather fan (羽団扇,hauchiwa). According to legend, tengu taughtMinamoto no Yoshitsune to fight with the "war-fan" and "the sword".[9] In folk tales, these fans sometimes can grow or shrink a person's nose, but usually, they have attributed the power to stir up great winds. Various other strange accessories may be associated withtengu, such as a type of tall, one-toothedgeta sandal often calledtengu-geta.[10]
It is believed, the termtengu and the characters used to write it are borrowed from the name of a fierce demon from Chinese folklore calledtiāngǒu though this still has to be confirmed. Chinese literature assigns this creature a variety of descriptions, but most often it is a fierce andanthropophagous canine monster that resembles a shooting star or comet. It makes a noise like thunder and brings war wherever it falls. One account from theShù Yì Jì (述異記, "A Collection of Bizarre Stories"), written in 1791, describes a dog-liketiāngǒu with a sharp beak and an upright posture, but usuallytiāngǒu bear little resemblance to their Japanese counterparts.[11]
The 23rd chapter of theNihon Shoki, written in 720, is generally held to contain the first recorded mention oftengu in Japan. In this account a large shooting star appears and is identified by a Buddhist priest as a "heavenly dog", and much like thetiāngǒu of China, the star precedes a military uprising. "9th year, Spring, and month, 23rd day. A great star floated from East to West, and there was a noise like that of thunder. The people of that day said that it was the sound of the falling star. Others said that it was earth-thunder. Hereupon the Buddhist Priest Bin said:—"It is not the falling star, but the Celestial Dog, the sound of whose barking is like thunder.". When it appeared, there was famine".—(Nihon Shoki) Although theChinese characters fortengu are used in the text, accompanying phoneticfurigana characters give the reading asamatsukitsune (heavenly fox). M. W. de Visser speculated that the early Japanese meaning for the characters used to write Tengu may represent a conglomeration of two Chinese spirits: thetiāngǒu and the fox spirits calledhuli jing before the nuances of meaning were expanded to include local Japanese kami, therefore the true Tengu in appearance.[12]
Some Japanese scholars have speculated that thetengu's image derives from that of theHindu eagle deityGaruda, who was pluralized in Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human beings. Like thetengu, thegaruda are often portrayed in a human-like form with wings and a bird's beak. The nametengu seems to be written in place of that of thegaruda in a Japanesesutra called theEmmyō Jizō-kyō (延命地蔵経), but this was likely written in theEdo period, long after thetengu's image was established. At least one early story in theKonjaku Monogatari describes atengu carrying off a dragon, which is reminiscent of thegaruda's feud with thenāga serpents. In other respects, however, thetengu's original behavior differs markedly from that of thegaruda, which is generally friendly towards Buddhism. De Visser has speculated that thetengu may be descended from an ancientShinto bird-demon which wassyncretized with both thegaruda and thetiāngǒu when Buddhism arrived in Japan. However, he found little evidence to support this idea.[13]
A later version of theKujiki, an ancient Japanese historical text, writes the name ofAmanozako, a monstrous female deity born from the godSusanoo's spat-out ferocity, with characters meaningtengu deity (天狗神). The book describes Amanozako as a raging creature capable of flight, with the body of a human, the head of a beast, a long nose, long ears, and long teeth that can chew through swords. An 18th-century book called theTengu Meigikō (天狗名義考) suggests that this goddess may be the true predecessor of thetengu, but the date and authenticity of theKujiki, and of that edition, in particular, remain disputed.[14]
TheKonjaku Monogatarishū, a collection of stories published in the lateHeian period, contains some of the earliest tales oftengu, already characterized as they would be for centuries to come. Thesetengu are the troublesome opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with false images of the Buddha, carry off monks and drop them in remote places, possess women in an attempt to seduce holy men, rob temples, and endow those who worship them with unholy power. They often disguise themselves as priests or nuns, but their true form seems to be that of a kite.[15]
Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, accounts continued oftengu attempting to cause trouble in the world. They were now established as the ghosts of angry, vain, or heretical priests who had fallen on the "tengu-realm" (天狗道,tengudō). They began to possess people, especially women and girls, and speak through their mouths (kitsunetsuki). Still the enemies of Buddhism, the demons also turned their attention to the royal family. TheKojidan tells of an Empress who was possessed, and theŌkagami reports that Emperor Sanjō was made blind by atengu, the ghost of a priest who resented the throne.[16]
One notorioustengu from the 12th century was himself the ghost of an emperor. TheHōgen Monogatari tells the story ofEmperor Sutoku, who was forced by his father to abandon the throne. When he later raised theHōgen Rebellion to take back the country fromEmperor Go-Shirakawa, he was defeated and exiled toSanuki Province inShikoku. According to legend he died in torment, having sworn to haunt the nation of Japan as a great demon, and thus became a fearsometengu with long nails and eyes like a kite's.[17]
In stories from the 13th century,tengu began to abduct young boys as well as the priests they had always targeted. The boys were often returned, while the priests would be found tied to the tops of trees or other high places. All of thetengu's victims, however, would come back in a state near death or madness, sometimes after having been tricked into eating animal dung.[7]
Thetengu of this period were often conceived of as the ghosts of the arrogant, and as a result, the creatures have become strongly associated with vanity and pride. Today the Japanese expressiontengu ni naru ("becoming atengu") is still used to describe a conceited person.[18]
In theGenpei Jōsuiki, written in the lateKamakura period, a god appears to Go-Shirakawa and gives a detailed account oftengu ghosts. He says that they fall onto thetengu road because, as Buddhists, they cannot go toHell, yet as people with bad principles, they also cannot go toHeaven. He describes the appearance of different types oftengu: the ghosts of priests, nuns, ordinary men, and ordinary women, all of whom in life possessed excessive pride. The god introduces the notion that not alltengu are equal; knowledgeable men becomedaitengu (大天狗,greater tengu), but ignorant ones becomekotengu (小天狗,small tengu).[19]
The philosopherHayashi Razan lists the greatest of thesedaitengu asSōjōbō ofKurama,Tarōbō ofAtago, and Jirōbō ofHira.[20] The demons of Kurama and Atago are among the most famoustengu.[18]
A section of theTengu Meigikō, later quoted byInoue Enryō, lists thedaitengu in this order:
Daitengu are often pictured in a more human-like form than their underlings, and due to their long noses, they may also be calledhanatakatengu (鼻高天狗,tall-nosed tengu).Kotengu may conversely be depicted as more bird-like. They are sometimes calledKarasu-Tengu (烏天狗,crow tengu), orkoppa- orkonoha-tengu (木葉天狗, 木の葉天狗,foliage tengu).[22]Inoue Enryō described two kinds oftengu in hisTenguron: the greatdaitengu, and the small, bird-likekonoha-tengu who live inCryptomeria trees. Thekonoha-tengu are noted in a book from 1746 called theShokoku Rijin Dan (諸国里人談), as bird-like creatures with wings two meters across which were seen catching fish in theŌi River, but this name rarely appears in literature otherwise.[23]
Creatures that do not fit the classic bird oryamabushi image are sometimes calledtengu. For example,tengu in the guise of wood-spirits may be calledguhin (occasionally writtenkuhin) (狗賓,dog guests), but this word can also refer totengu with canine mouths or other features.[22] The people ofKōchi Prefecture onShikoku believe in a creature calledshibaten orshibatengu (シバテン, 芝天狗,lawn tengu), but this is a small childlike being who lovessumō wrestling and sometimes dwells in the water, and is generally considered one of the many kinds ofkappa.[24] Another water-dwellingtengu is thekawatengu (川天狗,river tengu) of theGreater Tokyo Area. This creature is rarely seen, but it is believed to create strange fireballs and be a nuisance to fishermen.[25]
InYamagata Prefecture among other areas, thickets in the mountains during summer, there are several tens oftsubo of moss and sand that were revered as the "nesting grounds of tengu," and in mountain villages in theKanagawa Prefecture, they would cut trees at night and were called "tengu daoshi" (天狗倒し, tengu fall), and mysterious sounds at night of a tree being cut and falling, or mysterious swaying sounds despite no wind, were considered the work of mountain tengu. It is also theorized that shooting a gun three times would make this mysterious sound stop. Besides this, in theTone District,Gunma Prefecture, there are legends about the "tengu warai" (天狗笑い, tengu laugh) about how one would hear laughter out of nowhere, and if one simply presses on further, it'd become an even louder laugh, and if one tries laughing back, it'd laugh even louder than before, and the "tengu tsubute" (天狗礫, tengu pebble) (said to be the path that tengu go on) about how when walking on mountain paths, there would be a sudden wind, the mountain would rumble, and stones would come flying, and places tengu live such as "tenguda" (天狗田, tengu field), "tengu no tsumetogi ishi" (天狗の爪とぎ石, tengu scratching stone), "tengu no yama" (天狗の山, tengu mountain), "tengudani" (天狗谷, tengu valley), etc., in other words, "tengu territory" (天狗の領地) or "tengu guest quarters" (狗賓の住処). InKanazawa's business district Owari inHōreki 5 (1755), it is said that a "tengu tsubute" (天狗つぶて) was seen. In Mt. Ogasa,Shizuoka Prefecture, a mysterious phenomenon of hearing the sound ofhayashi from the mountains in the summer was called "tengubayashi" (天狗囃子), and it is said to be the work of the tengu atOgasa Jinja.[26] On Sado Island (Sado,Niigata Prefecture), there were "yamakagura" (山神楽, mountain kagura), and the mysterious occurrence of hearing kagura from the mountains was said to be the work of a tengu.[27] In Tokuyama,Ibi District,Gifu Prefecture (nowIbigawa), there were "tengu taiko" (天狗太鼓), and the sound oftaiko (drums) from the mountains was said to be a sign of impending rain.[28]
TheShasekishū, a book of Buddhist parables from theKamakura period, makes a point of distinguishing between good and badtengu. The book explains that the former are in command of the latter and are the protectors, not opponents, of Buddhism – although the flaw of pride or ambition has caused them to fall onto the demon road, they remain the same good,dharma-abiding persons they were in life.[29]
Thetengu's unpleasant image continued to erode in the 17th century. Some stories now presented them as much less malicious, protecting and blessing Buddhist institutions rather than menacing them or setting them on fire. According to a legend in the 18th-centuryKaidan Toshiotoko (怪談登志男), atengu took the form of ayamabushi and faithfully served the abbot of aZen monastery until the man guessed his attendant's true form. Thetengu's wings and huge nose then reappeared. Thetengu requested a piece of wisdom from his master and left, but he continued, unseen, to provide the monastery with miraculous aid.[30]
In the 18th and 19th centuries,tengu came to be feared as the vigilant protectors of certain forests. In the 1764 collection of strange storiesSanshu Kidan (三州奇談), a tale tells of a man who wanders into a deep valley while gathering leaves, only to be faced with a sudden and ferocious hailstorm. A group of peasants later tell him that he was in the valley where theguhin live, and anyone who takes a single leaf from that place will surely die. In theSōzan Chomon Kishū (想山著聞奇集), written in 1849, the author describes the customs of the wood-cutters ofMino Province, who used a sort of rice cake calledkuhin-mochi to placate thetengu, who would otherwise perpetrate all sorts of mischief. In other provinces a special kind of fish calledokoze was offered to thetengu by woodsmen and hunters, in exchange for a successful day's work.[31] The people ofIshikawa Prefecture have until recently believed that thetengu loathemackerel, and have used this fish as a charm against kidnappings and hauntings by the mischievous spirits.[32]
Tengu are worshipped as beneficialkami (gods orrevered spirits) in various regions. For example, thetengu Saburō ofIzuna is worshipped on that mountain and various others asIzunaGongen (飯綱権現; "incarnation of Izuna"), one of the primary deities inIzuna Shugen, which also has ties tofox sorcery and theDakini ofTantric Buddhism. Izuna Gongen is depicted as a beaked, winged figure with snakes wrapped around his limbs, surrounded by a halo of flame, riding on the back of a fox and brandishing a sword. Worshippers oftengu on other sacred mountains have adopted similar images for their deities, such as Sanjakubō (三尺坊) or Akiba Gongen (秋葉権現) ofAkiba and Dōryō Gongen (道了権現) of Saijō-ji Temple inOdawara.[33]
Tengu appear frequently in the orally transmitted tales collected by Japanese folklorists. As these stories are often humorous, they tend to portraytengu as ridiculous creatures who are easily tricked or confused by humans. Some common folk tales in whichtengu appear include:
During the 14th century, thetengu began to trouble the world outside of the Buddhist clergy, and like their ominous ancestors thetiāngǒu, thetengu became creatures associated with war.[38] Legends eventually ascribed to them great knowledge in the art of skilled combat.
This reputation seems to have its origins in a legend surrounding the famous warriorMinamoto no Yoshitsune. When Yoshitsune was a young boy going by the name of Ushiwaka-maru, his father,Yoshitomo, was assassinated by theTaira clan.Taira no Kiyomori, head of the Taira, allowed the child to survive on the grounds that he be exiled to the temple onMount Kurama and become a monk. But one day in the Sōjō-ga-dani Valley, Ushiwaka encountered the mountain'stengu,Sōjōbō. This spirit taught the boy the art of swordsmanship so that he might bring vengeance on the Taira.[39]
Originally the actions of thistengu were portrayed as another attempt by demons to throw the world into chaos and war, but as Yoshitsune's renown as a legendary warrior increased, his monstrous teacher came to be depicted in a much more sympathetic and honorable light. In one of the most famous renditions of the story, theNoh playKurama Tengu, Ushiwaka is the only person from his temple who does not give up an outing in disgust at the sight of a strangeyamabushi. Sōjōbō thus befriends the boy and teaches him out of sympathy for his plight.[40]
Two stories from the 19th century continue this theme: In theSōzan Chomon Kishū, a boy is carried off by atengu and spends three years with the creature. He comes home with a magic gun that never misses a shot. A story fromInaba Province, related byInoue Enryō, tells of a girl with poor manual dexterity who is suddenly possessed by atengu. The spirit wishes to rekindle the declining art of swordsmanship in the world. Soon a young samurai appears to whom thetengu has appeared in a dream, and the possessed girl instructs him as an expert swordsman.[41]
Tengu continue to be popular subjects in modern fiction, both in Japan and other countries. They often appear among the many characters and creatures featured inJapanese cinema,animation,comics,role-playing games, andvideo games.[42]
| Mythic texts |   | |
|---|---|---|
| Japanese creation myth | ||
| Takamagahara mythology | ||
| Izumo mythology | ||
| Hyūga mythology | ||
| Human age | ||
| Mythological locations | ||
| Mythological weapons | ||
| Major Buddhist figures | ||
| Seven Lucky Gods | ||
| Legendary creatures | ||
| Other | ||
