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Tendai (天台宗,Tendai-shū), also known as theTendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗,Tendai hokke shū, sometimes justHokkeshū), is aMahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significantesoteric elements that was officially established inJapan in 806 by the Japanese monkSaichō.[1] The Tendai school, which has been based onMount Hiei since its inception, rose to prominence during theHeian period (794–1185). It gradually eclipsed the powerfulHossō school and competed with the rivalShingon school to become the most influential sect at theImperial court.
By theKamakura period (1185–1333), Tendai had become one of the dominant forms ofJapanese Buddhism, with numerous temples and vast landholdings. During the Kamakura period, variousmonks left Tendai to found new Buddhist schools such asJōdo-shū,Jōdo Shinshū,Nichiren-shū andSōtōZen.[2] The destruction of the head temple ofEnryaku-ji byOda Nobunaga in 1571, as well as the geographic shift of the capital away fromKyoto toEdo, ended Tendai's dominance, though it remained influential.[3]
InChinese andJapanese, its name is identical toTiantai (meaning "Celestial Platform"), its parentChinese Buddhist tradition. Both traditions emphasize the importance of theLotus Sutra and revere the teachings of the Tiantai patriarchs, especiallyZhiyi. In English, theJapanese romanizationTendai is used to refer specifically to the Japanese school. According toHazama Jikō, the main characteristic of Tendai is its comprehensive and universalist spirit, which is based on the "One Great Perfect Teaching", the idea that "all the teachings of the Buddha are ultimately without contradiction and can be unified in one comprehensive and perfect system."[4]
Other unique elements include an exclusive use of thebodhisattva precepts for ordination (without thePratimokṣa), a practice tradition based on the "Four Integrated Schools": (Shikan (meditation),Pure Land,Tantra and Precepts), and an emphasis on the study ofChinese Esoteric Buddhist sources.[4]David W. Chappell sees Tendai as "the most comprehensive and diversified" Buddhist tradition which provides a religious framework that is "suited to adapt to other cultures, to evolve new practices, and to universalizeBuddhism."[5]
The teachings of the Chinese Tiantai school founded byZhiyi (538–597 CE) had been had brought to Japan as early as 754 byJianzhen (Jp.Ganjin).[6] However, Tiantai teachings did not take root until generations later when the monkSaichō 最澄 (767–822) joined theJapanese missions to Imperial China in 804 and foundedEnryaku-ji onMount Hiei. The future founder ofShingon Buddhism,Kūkai, also traveled on the same mission; however, the two were on separate ships and there is no evidence of their meeting during this period.[1]
From the city ofNingbo (then called Míngzhōu 明州), Saichō was introduced by the governor toDàosuì (道邃), who was the seventh Tiantai patriarch, and later he journeyed toTiantai Mountain for further study.[7] After receiving teachings and initiations onChan, Precepts andChinese Esoteric Buddhism, Saichō devoted much of his time to making accurate copies of Tiantai texts and studying under Dàosuì. By the sixth month of 805, Saichō had returned to Japan along with the official mission to China.[8] Saichō was also influenced by his study ofHuayan (Jp. Kegon) philosophy under Gyōhyō 行表 (720–797) and this was his initial training before going to China.[9][10]
Because of the Imperial Court's interest in Tiantai as well as esoteric Buddhism, Saichō quickly rose in prominence upon his return. He was asked byEmperor Kanmu (735–806) to perform various esoteric rituals, and Saichō also sought recognition from the Emperor for a new, independent Tendai school in Japan.[8] Because the emperor sought to reduce the power of theHossō school, he granted this request, but with the stipulation that the new "Tendai" school would have two programs: one for esoteric Buddhism and one for exoteric Buddhist practice.[9]
The new Tendai school was therefore based on a combination of the doctrinal and meditative system of Zhiyi with esoteric Buddhist practice and texts. Tendai learning at Mount Hiei traditionally followed two curriculums:[1][9]
However, Emperor Kanmu died shortly thereafter, and Saichō was not allocated any ordinands until 809 with the reign ofEmperor Saga. Saichō's choice of establishing his community at Mount Hiei also proved fortuitous because it was located at the northeast of the new capital ofKyoto and thus was auspicious in terms ofChinese geomancy as the city's protector.[11]
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The remainder of Saichō's life was spent in heated debates with notable Hossō figures, particularlyTokuitsu, and maintaining an increasingly strained relationship with Kūkai (from whom he received esoteric initiations) to broaden his understanding of esoteric Buddhism. The debates with the Hossō school was primarily centered on the doctrine of the One Vehicle (ekayana) found in theLotus Sutra which the Hossō school saw as not being an ultimate teaching. This was known as theSan-Itsu Gon-Jitsu Ronsō (the debate over whether the One-vehicle or Three-vehicles, were the provisional or the real teaching) and it had a great influence on Japanese Buddhism.[8]
Saichō also studied esoteric Buddhism under Kūkai, the founder of theShingon school. Saichō borrowed esoteric texts from Kūkai for copying and they also exchanged letters for some time. However, they eventually had a falling out (in around 816) over their understanding of Buddhist esotericism.[1] This was because Saichō attempted to integrate esoteric Buddhism (mikkyo) into his broader Tendai schema, seeing esoteric Buddhism as equal to the Tendai Lotus Sutra teaching. Saichō would write that Tendai and Mikkyo "interfuse with one another" and that "there should be no such thing as preferring one to the other."[1] Meanwhile, Kūkai saw mikkyo as different from and fully superior tokengyo (exoteric Buddhism) and was also concerned that Saichō had not finished his esoteric studies personally under him.[1]
Saichō's efforts were also devoted to developing a Mahāyāna ordination platform that required theBodhisattva Precepts of theBrahmajala Sutra only, and not thepratimokṣa code of theDharmaguptakavinaya, which was traditionally used in East Asian Buddhist monasticism. Saichō saw the precepts of the small vehicle (hinayana) as no longer being necessary.[8] His ideas were attacked by the more traditional Nara schools as well as the Sōgō (the Office of Monastic Affairs) and they were not initially approved by the imperial court. Saichō wrote theKenkairon to respond to their criticisms. By the time that Saichō died in 822, his yearly petition was finally granted and the traditional "Four Part Vinaya" (Chinese:四分律) was replaced by the Tendai Bodhisattva Precepts.[8]
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Seven days after Saichō died, the Imperial Court granted permission for the new Tendai Bodhisattva Precept ordination process which allowed Tendai to use an ordination platform separate from the powerful schools inNara. Gishin, Saichō's disciple and the first "zasu"(座主; "Head of the Tendai Order"), presided over the first allotted ordinands in 827. The appointments of thezasu typically only lasted a few years, and therefore among the same generation of disciples, a number could be appointed zasu in one's lifetime. After Gishin, the next zasu of the Tendai school were: Enchō (円澄),Ennin 慈覺大師圓仁 (794–864), An'e (安慧),Enchin 智證大師圓珍 (814–891), Yuishu (惟首), Yūken (猷憲) and Kōsai (康済).[12]
By 864, Tendai monks were now appointed to the powerfulsōgō(僧綱; "Office of Monastic Affairs") with the naming of An'e (安慧) as the provisional vinaya master. Other examples include Enchin's appointment to the Office of Monastic Affairs in 883. While Saichō had opposed the Office during his lifetime, within a few generations disciples were now gifted with positions in the Office by theImperial Family. By this time, Japanese Buddhism was dominated by the Tendai school to a much greater degree than Chinese Buddhism was by its forebear, the Tiantai.[citation needed]
Philosophically, the Tendai school did not deviate substantially from the beliefs that had been created by the Tiantai school in China. However, Saichō had also transmitted numerous teachings from China was not exclusively Tiantai, but also includedZen (禪), Pure Land, the esotericMikkyō (密教), andVinaya School (戒律) elements. The tendency to include a range of teachings became more marked in the doctrines of Saichō's successors, such asEnnin,Enchin and Annen (安然, 841–?).[citation needed]
After Saichō, the Tendai order underwent efforts to deepen its understanding of teachings collected by the founder, particularly esoteric Buddhism. Saichō had only received initiation in theDiamond Realm Mandala, and since the rival Shingon school under Kūkai had received deeper training, early Tendai monks felt it necessary to return to China for further initiation and instruction. Saichō's discipleEnnin went to China in 838 and returned ten years later with a more thorough understanding of esoteric,Pure Land, and Tiantai teachings.[12] Ennin brought important esoteric texts and initiation lineages, such as theSusiddhikāra-sūtra, theMahāvairocana-sūtra andVajraśekhara-sūtra.[citation needed]
However, in later years, this range of teachings began to form sub-schools within Tendai Buddhism. By the time ofRyōgen, there were two distinct groups on Mt. Hiei, theJimon and Sanmon: the Sammon-ha "Mountain Group" (山門派) followedEnnin and the Jimon-ha "Temple Group" (寺門派) followedEnchin.[13]
Konryū Daishi Sōō (831–918), a student of Ennin, is another influential Tendai figure. He is known for developing the ascetic practice circumambulating Mt. Hiei, living and practicing in the remote wilderness. This practice, which became associated withFudō Myōō (Acala) and Sōō's hermitage at Mudō- ji, became quite influential in Tendai. A more elaborate and systematized practice based on Sōō's simple mountain asceticism developed over time, and came to be calledkaihōgyō (回峰行). This remains an important part of Tendai Buddhism today.[14]
Akaku DaishiAnnen (841–902?) is one of the most important post-Saichō Tendai thinkers. He wrote around a hundred works on Tendai doctrine and practice.[15] According to Annen's theory of the "four ones" (shiichi kyōhan 四一教判), all Buddhas are ultimately a single Buddha, all temporal moments are one moment, all Pure Lands are also just one Pure Land, and all teachings are interfused into one teaching.[16]
According to Lucia Dolce, Annen "systematized earlier and contemporary doctrines elaborated in both streams of Japanese esoteric Buddhism, Tōmitsu (i.e., Shingon) and Taimitsu (Tendai)", "critically reinterpreted Kūkai's thought, offering new understandings of crucial esoteric concepts and rituals", and he also "elaborated theories that were to become emblematic of Japanese Buddhism, such as the realization of buddhahood by grasses and trees (sōmoku jōbutsu)" as well ashongaku shisō thought.[17]
These various post-Saichō Tendai figures also developed the Tendai doctrine of "the identity of the purport of Perfect and Esoteric teachings" (enmitsu itchi 円密一致) which according to Ōkubo Ryōshun "refers to the harmony and agreement between the Perfect teachings of the Lotus Sutra and Esoteric Buddhism."[18]
During the laterHeian period,Ryōgen 良源 (912–985) was an influential figure. He was the 18th abbot of Enryakuji, the Tendai head temple on Mount Hiei, and was an influential politician closely tied to theFujiwara clan, as well as a learned scholar. Due to his influence, the Tendai school became the dominant Buddhist tradition in Japanese intellectual life and at theimperial court in Kyoto. Due to Ryōgen's influence, Fujiwara family members also came to occupy important positions at Tendai temples. Ryōgen is also said to have hired an army to protect Mt. Hiei, and some scholars see him as contributing the development of the warrior monk phenomenon (sōhei). However, other scholars argue that warrior monks developed due to various other social and political pressures, such as the decline of the imperial bureaucratic state, the rise of temple estates, and the rise of noblemen joining the clergy.[19][20] Whatever the case, the lateHeian age also saw increased violence among Buddhist schools and temples (and sub-schools within Tendai as well), with armed groups resorting to violence to resolve disputes between Buddhist temples.[20] During this period, the main Tendai temples ofEnryakuji andOnjōji resorted to armed violence against each other on more than one occasion.[21]
Ryōgen's most influential disciples whereGenshin (Eshin sōzu 942-1017) and Kakuun (Dannasōzu 957-1007).[22] The lineages of these two figures developed into two main sects within Tendai, the Eshin school and the Danna school respectively. According to Shōshin Ichishima "Genshin's Eshin school espoused the doctrine of the original enlightenment, while Kakuun's Danna school espoused that of acquired enlightenment. The Eshinryū school used theninth consciousness as the basis of meditation, whereas the Dannaryū used thesixth consciousness in theyogācāra consciousness [system]. The Eshinryū school valued oral transmission of doctrine and meditative insight, while Dannaryū emphasized doctrine and texts. The Eshinryū school favored the "origin teaching" (honmon), and the latter fourteen chapters of theLotus Sūtra over the "trace teaching" (shakumon), the first fourteen chapters, while the Dannaryū school regarded both sections as equally important. These differences distinguish the two schools."[22]
During the Heian period, TendaiPure Land practice also developed into a significant and influential tradition. Early Pure Land Buddhism emphasized spiritual cultivation aimed at achieving birth in Amida Buddha's Pure Land at the time of death as well as the constantly walking samadhi, aPratyutpanna Samādhi derived practice taught in Zhiyi'sMohe Zhiguan in which one would circumambulate a Buddha statue while meditating on the features of the BuddhaAmitabha.[23] Chinese Pure Land chanting methods, such asFazhao's five tone nembutsu (go-e nembutsu, 五会念仏) were also adopted into the Tendai tradition by figures likeEnnin.[24] In early Japanese Tendai Pure Land discourse, monks such as Zenyu andSenkan (918–984) embraced this practice and focused their teaching on Pure Land elements, seeing it as the most viable kind of practice for the age ofmappo (Dharma Decline). For them, adopting Pure Land practices did not signify abandoning the traditional Tendai path, rather the Pure Land path was seen as a practical and accessible method for entering the path, especially for those who felt incapable of advanced spiritual cultivation in their present lives. This interpretation allowed Pure Land devotion to align with the broader Tendai tradition, reinforcing the belief that all beings possess the potential for buddhahood.[25]
Genshin (942–1017), an influential student of Ryōgen, wrote the famousŌjōyōshū 往生要集 ("Essentials of Birth in the Pure Land"), a treatise on Pure Land practice which influenced later Pure Land Japanese figures.[26] His work built upon the foundational ideas established by earlier monks like Senkan, emphasizing Pure Land practice as a viable and effective path toward enlightenment. Genshin's approach integrated these earlier teachings, presenting Pure Land birth as a powerful tool for advancing along the bodhisattva path in the quest for buddhahood.[23] Genshin would later become a key figure for Japanese Pure Land teachers likeHōnen.
Although the Tendai sect flourished under the patronage of theImperial House of Japan and the noble classes, by the end of theHeian period, it experienced an increasing breakdown in monastic discipline. This was partly caused by political entanglements with rival factions of theGenpei War, namely theTaira andMinamoto clans. Due to its patronage and growing popularity among the upper classes, the Tendai sect became not only respected, but also politically and even militarily powerful, with major temples having vast landholdings and fielding their own monastic armies ofsōhei (warrior-monks).[2] This was not unusual for major temples at the time, as major Buddhist temples (such asKōfuku-ji) fielded armies to protect their estates fromsamurai armies and bandits. With the outbreak of theGenpei War (1180–1185), major Tendai temples armed themselves and sometimes joined the war.[28]
In response to the perceivedworldliness andelitism of the powerful Tendai school, a number of low-ranking Tendai monks became dissatisfied and began to teach radical new doctrines which focused on simpler and more popular practices. The major figures of "NewKamakura Buddhism" likeNichiren,Hōnen,Shinran,Eisai andDōgen, were all initially trained as Tendai monks.[2] Tendai practices and monastic organization were adopted to some degree or another by each of these new schools, but one common feature of each school was a more narrowly focused set of practices (e.g.daimoku for the Nichiren school,zazen for Zen,nembutsu for Pure Land schools, etc.) in contrast to the more integrated approach of the Tendai. In spite of the rise of these new competing schools which saw Tendai as being "corrupt", medieval Tendai remained "a rich, varied, and thriving tradition" during the medieval period according to Jacqueline Stone.[2]
Initially, the largest and most popular of these new traditions—Pure Land Buddhism andNichiren Buddhism—did not attempt create new "schools" or "sects" separate from Tendai, as many of their monastics continued to be ordained and trained in Tendai institutions. Over time however, these groups gradually differentiated themselves from the Tendai mainstream, eventually forming separate institutions. As a number of new sects began to develop during the Kamakura period, the Tendai school used its patronage to try to oppose the growth of these rival factions. The Tendai establishment often used brigades ofsōhei (warrior monks) to repress these groups as well as drawing on their political influence. In one such event, Tendai warrior monks destroyed the printing blocks ofHōnen'sSenchakushū and raided the tomb of Hōnen.[29][30][31] Despite internal divisions, the Tendai establishment remained politically and militarily powerful throughout the Kamakura Period. Enryaku-ji maintained its network of warrior monks (sōhei) and its influence at the imperial court and among the aristocracy, even while internal divisions led to increasing doctrinal and institutional disputes.
Kamakura period Tendai also produced a number of important figures of its own, includingJien 慈圓 (1155–1225), known as a historian and a poet, who wrote theGukanshō (a religious history of Japan) and numerous devotional poems.[32] Hōjibō Shōshin 寶地房證眞 (active 1153–1214) was a major Buddhist intellectual in medieval Japanese Buddhism and the head of the Tendai curriculum at Mount Hiei. Shōshin wrote numerous works and commentaries, and is most known for his commentaries on the writings of Zhiyi, thePersonal Notes on the Three Major Works of Tendai (Tendai sandaibu shiki 天台三大部私記). This is "the most detailed study on Tendai doctrine until the twentieth century", according to Matthew Don McMullen.[33] Shōshin also wrote on esoteric Buddhism, which he interpreted in line with classical Tiantai doctrine, instead of seeing it as a separate form of Buddhism. Shōshin rejected the view that esoteric ormantrayana (shingon) Buddhism was superior to the Tendai Mahāyāna teaching of the one vehicle.[34]
TheMuromachi period saw Tendai Buddhism continue to hold prestige, but political instability and the weakening of the imperial court diminished its influence. Tendai remained closely connected to theAshikaga shogunate, and its doctrines influenced esoteric and Pure Land practices. However, the school's warrior monks were drawn into larger conflicts, particularly during theŌnin War (1467–1477), which devastated Kyoto and disrupted religious institutions.
During this time, some Tendai figures sought to revive the fractured tradition in various ways. One such figure wasShinsei 眞盛 (1443–1495), who emphasized the practice of nembutsu.[35]
During the Sengoku period, the power of Enryaku-ji was directly challenged byOda Nobunaga. In 1571, seeking to break the political and military power of Buddhist institutions, Nobunaga launched a brutal assault on Mount Hiei, burning Enryaku-ji and massacring thousands of monks and laypeople. This event severely weakened Tendai's influence and authority, though its doctrines and traditions persisted in smaller temples and through its connection with the imperial lineage.
TheTokugawa shogunate sought to control religious institutions, and under its temple registration system (theDanka system). Tendai, like other Buddhist schools, was integrated into the state's religious structure. Enryaku-ji was rebuilt with shogunal support, but Tendai never regained the influence and power it had wielded in previous centuries. Tendai monks of this era refocused themselves on doctrinal study, ritual practice, and its esoteric (Taimitsu) traditions.
During this period, one of the most important Tendai leaders wasTenkai (1536–1643). Tenkai helped restore the school's prestige by securing Tokugawa patronage, linking Tendai to the ideology of the shogunate and building new temples likeKita-in, andKan'ei-ji nearTokyo, the new seat of the Tokugawa shogunate.[36][37] Tenkai also worked to print and publish the entireChinese Buddhist Canon. Completed in 1648, this edition became known as the Kan'ei-ji Edition (or Tenkai Edition). This printing project is considered one of the most significant achievements in Japanese printing history.[38] Tendai scholars also engaged in doctrinal debates with the emergingŌbaku Zen school, which introduced new influences from China.
TheMeiji Restoration brought severe challenges to Tendai and other Buddhist institutions. The government's promotion ofShinto led to the confiscation of temple lands and a decline in patronage. The 19th and early 20th centuries saw efforts to modernize the school while maintaining its traditional teachings. In the 20th century, Tendai became part of the broader Buddhist revival movements in Japan, with renewed interest in its esoteric and Lotus Sutra-based teachings.
One of the most prominent Tendai figures of the 20th century wasShōchō Hagami (1903–1989). He served as President of the Japanese Religious Committee for World Federation and was a great practitioner of extenseiveKaihōgyō.[39] Hagami, along withEtai Yamada (1900–1999) were two major Tendai figures of the 20th century who widely promoted religious dialogue with other world religions and traveled widely.[39]
Today, the Tendai school remains active, with Enryaku-ji serving as its headquarters. While no longer a dominant force in Japanese Buddhism, it continues to influence various traditions through its doctrinal legacy and training system. Tendai temples in Japan and abroad promote both traditional monastic practice and lay-oriented teachings.
According to Jiko Hazama, the Tendai Buddhist worldview advocates a comprehensive form of Buddhism which sees all Buddhist teachings as being unified under an inclusive reading of theekayāna teaching of theLotus Sutra.[40] This holistic and inclusive form of Buddhism is based on the doctrinal synthesis of Tiantai Zhiyi, which was ultimately based on theLotus Sutra.[40] Tendai's inclusive view of religion allowed it to reconcile Buddhist doctrine with aspects ofJapanese culture such asShinto andJapanese aesthetics. Tendai doctrines likeoriginal enlightenment andhonji suijaku contributed to the integration of native Japanese religion with Tendai Buddhism.
In the major Tendai institutions likeTaisho University andMount Hiei, the main subjects of study are theLotus Sutra, the works of the Tiantai Patriarch Zhiyi, the works of the founderSaichō and some later Tendai figures like Ennin.[41]
The thought of the Japanese Tendai school is founded on the classic ChineseTiantai doctrines found in the works of patriarchsZhìyǐ andZhanran. These foundational doctrines include:[5]
Tendai Buddhism reveres theLotus Sutra as the highest teaching in Buddhism. In Saichō's writings, he frequently used the terminologyhokke engyō"Perfect Teaching of the Lotus Sutra" (法華円教) to imply it was the culmination of the previous sermons given byGautama Buddha.[12] Because of the central importance of theLotus Sutra, Tendai Buddhism sees all Buddhist teachings and practices as being united under the One Vehicle (ekayāna) taught in the Lotus Sutra. Saichō frequently used the termichijō bukkyō(一乗仏教; "One Vehicle Buddhism") and referred to theLotus Sutra as his main scriptural basis.[42]
Saichō taught that there were "three kinds ofLotus Sutra". According toJacqueline Stone, these can be explained as follows:[43]
Stone writes that Saichō saw all Buddhist teachings as being the true "Lotus Sutra" and he therefore attempted to integrate all Buddhist teachings he had studied within a single framework based on theLotus Sutra's One Vehicle.[43]
Hazama Jikō writes that the central feature of Tendai thought is its advocacy of the "One Great Perfect Teaching" (一大円教), "the idea that all the teachings of the Buddha are ultimately without contradiction and can be unified in one comprehensive and perfect system."[4] This idea was used by Saichō as a basis for his integration of the various schools of Buddhism into a single comprehensive synthesis. Hazama writes that "Saichō included both esoteric and exoteric teachings, and avoided an obsession with any one category of the Buddhist tradition such as Zen or the precepts. He sought instead to unite all of these elements on the basis of a single fundamental principle, the comprehensive and unifyingekayana spirit of the Lotus Sutra."[4]
Saichō believed that by consolidating all Buddhist ideas and practices and including all the varieties of Buddhism, his new school would allow all to "enter the great sea ofThusness which has a single flavor" (真如一味の大海) by following the path of goodness and that this would protect the nation. According to Hazama Jikō "these themes run throughout Saichō's work" including hisHokke shuku 法華秀 句 andShugo kokkai sho 守護国界章.[4]
Tendai thought also frames its understanding of Buddhist practice on the Lotus Sutra's teaching ofupāya orhōben (方便; expedient means). Furthermore, Tendai uses a similar hierarchy as the one used in Chinese Tiantai to classify the various othersutras in the Buddhist canon in relation to theLotus Sutra, and it also followsZhiyi's original conception ofFive Periods Eight Teachings orgojihakkyō(五時八教). This doctrinal classification system (panjiao) is based on the doctrine of expedient means, but was also a common practice among East Asian schools trying to sort the vast corpus of writing inherited from India.[22]
Later Tendai thinkers likeAnnen provided a new doctrinal classification system (based on Zhiyi's system) for Japanese Tendai. All Buddhist teachings are seen as being included into the following categories. The first major group are those teachings that rely on the three vehicles:[18][22]
The highest teachings are those who derive from the one vehicle:[18]
Tendai thought vigorously defends the idea that all beings have the potential for fullbuddhahood and thus that the Lotus Sutra was a teaching for all sentient beings.[43] This teaching in particular was a major point of contention with the Japanese Hossō (Yogacara) school in Japan who espoused theFive Natures Doctrine (五姓各別,goshō kakubetsu) which argues that not all being can become Buddhas, since some do not have the seeds for Buddhahood.[43] The heated debates between Saichō and the Hossō scholarTokuitsu frequently addressed this controversy as well as other related issues, such as how to categorize the various Buddhist teachings, and the value of certain Tendai teachings.[44]
Another element of Tendai buddha-nature thought was the notion that the phenomenal world, the world of our experiences, fundamentally is an expression of theDharma. Tendai Buddhism claims that each and every sense phenomenonjust as it is is the expression of Dharma. This idea comes fromZhanran's view of buddha nature as an all-pervasive reality that also includes insentient things (like mountains, rivers etc). Drawing on this, Saichō also argued that insentient things possess Buddha-nature and that the distinction between sentient and insentient is ultimately illusory, since buddha-nature pervades all things throughthe principle of mutual inclusion, in which eachdharma realm contains all others. Thus for Saichō ultimate reality, theDharmakaya, actively manifests in the phenomenal world as the world itself.[45]
The medieval Tendai school was the locus of the development of the Japanese doctrine ofhongaku 本覚 (innate or original enlightenment), which holds that all beings are enlightened inherently. This theory developed in Tendai from thecloistered rule era (1086–1185) through theEdo period (1688–1735).[2] According toJacqueline Stone, the term "original enlightenment" itself (Chn.pen-chileh) is first found in theAwakening of Faith in the Mahayana, "where it refers to true suchness considered under the aspect of conventional deluded consciousness and thus denotes the potential for enlightenment in unenlightened beings."[2] The idea developed in the ChineseHuayen tradition and influencedChan Buddhism, as well as the thought of Saichō andKūkai.[2]
Stone writes that the medieval Tendai doctrine regards "enlightenment or the ideal state as inherent from the outset and as accessible in the present, rather than as the fruit of a long process of cultivation."[46] Scholars also refer to the doctrinal system associated with this idea as "original enlightenment thought". Stone defines this as the "array of doctrines and concepts associated with the proposition that all beings are enlightened inherently."[46] According to Stone, as these teachings developed, they grew to include the idea that:
Not only human beings, but ants and crickets, mountains and rivers, grasses and trees are all innately Buddhas. The Buddhas who appear in sutras, radiating light and endowed with excellent marks, are merely provisional signs. The "real" Buddha is the ordinary worldling. Indeed, the whole phenomenal world is the primordially enlightenedTathāgata.[46]
Tamura Yoshirō argued that hongaku was anon-dual teaching which saw all existents as interpenetrating and mutually identified. This negates any ontological difference between Buddhas and common people as well as between pure lands and mundane worlds. Tamura argued that this move re-affirms the relative phenomenal world as an expression of the ultimate nondual reality and is found in phrases like "the worldly passions are precisely enlightenment" and "birth and death are precisely nirvana".[46] These lineages also transmitted their teachings through transmission rituals which made use of mirrors to illustrate nonduality and the interpenetration of all phenomena.[46]
Hongaku teachings were passed down through various exoteric teaching lineages (which often involved secrecy), the largest of which were the Eshin-ryu and the Danna-ryu. At the core of these doctrinal systems was the Tendai practice of the "threefold contemplation in a single thought" (isshin sangan 一心 三観) which is taught in Zhiyi'sMohezhiguan. According to Stone, this practice is based on seeing "that all phenomena are empty of substance, provisionally existing, and the middle, or both empty and provisionally existing simultaneously."[2]
While certain scholars have seen hongaku thought as denying the need for Buddhist practice, Stone notes that Tendai hongaku based texts like theShinnyokan 真 如 観 (Contemplation of true suchness) and theShuzenji-ketsu 修 禅 守 伏 (Decisions of Hsiuch’an-ssu) deny this idea. Instead, these texts teach various kinds of Buddhist practices, including nenbutsu, contemplation of emptiness (kukan 空観), meditations using Buddhist icons and mirrors, practicing the threefold contemplation in the midst of daily activities and recitation of the daimoku during when one is approaching death.[2]
Hongaku thought was also influential on the development ofNew Kamakura Buddhism and the founders of these schools, though they had their own unique understandings.[2] However, not all Tendai thinkers embraced hongaku thought. For example, the more conservative commentator Hōjibō Shōshin criticized hongaku ideas as a denial of causality.[46]
Another important doctrine in Japanese Tendai is that it is possible to attain "Buddhahood with this very body" (即身成佛sokushin jōbutsu). This is closely related to the idea of original enlightenment.[47] This idea was introduced by Saichō, who held that this described certain advanced practitioners who had realizedthe fifth degree of identity, though this attainment was a rare thing.[47] Saichō understood theLotus Sutra to be the "great direct path" to Buddhahood which could be attained in this very body.[48] Saichō saw the story of the Dragon king's daughter in theLotus Sutra's Devadatta chapter as evidence for this direct path (jikidō) to Buddhahood which did not require three incalculable eons (as was taught in some forms of Mahayana Buddhism), but could be achieved in three lives or even one lifetime.[42][47] Later Tendai scholars sent questions to Chinese Tiantai masters asking about this issue, and the answers also tended to be conservative. Tiantai monks like Tsung-ying accepted the idea that one could attain the fifth degree of identity in this life, but that this was applicable primarily to advanced practitioners who had already reached a high degree of spiritual maturity.[47]
However, the influence of esoteric Buddhism and the need to compete with theShingon school led Tendai scholars to continue to explore ways to "shorten the path" and attain Buddhahood swiftly in one lifetime. Later Tendai scholars like Rinshō, andAnnen were much more optimistic aboutsokushin jōbutsu, claiming certain esoteric practices could lead to Buddhahood rapidly in only one lifetime, while de-emphasizing the concern with achieving Buddhahood in future lives. They also further extended the application of this idea to individuals at the lower levels of the degrees of identity, arguing that one could jump overbodhisattva stages and attain Buddhahood without fully eradicating defilements. This idea, known as "realization by worldlings" (bon'i jōbutsu), posited that practitioners could gain Buddha-wisdom through the power of the Buddha's presence and the Taimitsu esoteric practices. According to Groner, this allowed "for the possibility that worldlings who still have some of the coarser defilements might experiencesokushin jōbutsu."[47]
Other Tendai figures likeHōjibō Shōshin (1136–1220 or 1131–1215), an important Tendai commentator on Zhiyi's works, were more traditional and critical of ideas concerning the rapid realization of Buddhahood for everyone (without outright denying the possibility of Buddhahood in this body). For Shōshin,sokushin jōbutsu applied to those who had "superior religious faculties" because they "have previously practiced the various provisional teachings" in many previous lives.[47]
Another important theory which developed in the Japanese Tendai school during the early Heian period was the theory ofhonji suijaku (本地垂迹, traces from the original ground). This idea facilitated the integration of native Japanese deities (kami) into the Buddhist pantheon, with buddhas seen as representing the ‘original ground’ (honji 本地) and the kami as their ‘traces’ (suijaku 垂迹).[49] Although this theory became prominent onMount Hiei, its conceptual roots can be traced to the Chinese Tiantai tradition, particularly its teaching of the two gates: the 'gate of the essential teaching' (benmen 本門) and the 'gate of the trace' (jimen 迹門), as outlined in the Lotus Sūtra. Esoteric Buddhism also played a key role in shaping this theory by distinguishing between Dainichi's body of fundamental nature (honji-shin 本地身). This framework positioned all buddhas, bodhisattvas,wisdom kings, and celestial beings as manifestations of Dainichi (Mahavairocana).[49] Initially, the honji suijaku theory aimed to incorporate indigenous deities into a two-tiered structure; however, its reliance on 'oral transmissions' (kuden) eventually fostered a proliferation of localized interpretations.[49]
The theory influenced the understanding of sacred figures atEnryakuji andHie Taisha (now Hiyoshi Taisha). Additionally, the honji suijaku concept contributed to reimaginingMount Hiei's geographical landscape as a symbolic cosmology. This is reflected in the Hie Sannō maṇḍala, which visually illustrates the two-tiered structure by positioning buddhas above Mount Hiei and corresponding deities below. The integration of Esoteric Buddhism with local religious practices ultimately resulted in the formation ofSannō Shintō, a distinct Shintō tradition associated with Mount Hiei. This tradition developed within the dual institution formed by Enryakuji and Hie Shrine.[49]
The Tendai school emphasizes the unity of study and practice. The curriculum includes a comprehensive approach to Buddhist study that reflects its foundation in the Chinese tradition. The Tendai curriculum is distinctive for its breadth, combining scriptural study, debate, and exegesis.
The primary textual foundation of the Tendai school is theThreefold Lotus Sūtra (Japanese:Hokke-kyō), which is regarded as the supreme teaching of the Buddha and the main scriptural authority of the Tendai tradition. In addition to theLotus Sutra, the Tendai curriculum includes several other key Indic sources which are used to support theLotus Sutra which are: theDaichido-ron (Great Wisdom Treatise), theMahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (Jp:Daihatsunehan-kyō), thePrajñāpāramitā Sūtrain 25000 slokas (Daihannya-kyō) and theBook of the Original Acts that Adorn the Bodhisattva (Bosatsu Yōraku Hongyō Kyō, T. 24, No. 1485).[50] Other sutras are also studied, such as theBrahmajāla Sūtra (Bonmō-kyō), which provides the school with itsbodhisattva precepts.[50]
There are also numerousChinese Tiantai Treatises studied in Tendai Buddhism. The writings of the Chinese Tiantai patriarchZhiyi (538–597) are also central. Three key works:Makashikan (摩訶止観),Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra (Hokke Gengi, 法華玄義), andWords and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra (Hokke Mongu, 法華文句) — form the core of Tendai scholastic study. These are always read with the commentaries byZhanran. Another important work by Zhiyi for Tendai is theCommentary on the Meaning of the Bodhisattva Precepts, which is a key work for novices seeking to understand the Tendai approach to the precepts. There are also various other works which are important, including other works byZhiyi,Zhanran andSiming Zhili.[50]
Regarding Japanese sources, the works ofSaichō, especially his works on thebodhisattva precepts like theKenkairon (Clarifying the Precepts), are central to the Tendai understanding of ordination and precepts.[50]
Apart from these sources, the Tendai school also maintains a tradition ofEsoteric Buddhism (Taimitsu,Mikkyō). The key esoteric scriptures in the Tendai esoteric curriculum are:Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra (Dainichi Kyō),Vajrasekhara Sūtra (Kongōchōkyō), and theSusiddhikara Sūtra (Soshitsujikara-kyō).[50] These are read alongside various traditional commentaries byYixing,Ennin,Enchin andAnnen.[50]
A feature unique to Japanese Tendai Buddhism from its inception was the concept ofshishūyūgō (四宗融合, "Integrating the Four Schools"). Senior Tendai teachers, orajari, train in various practice traditions, especially the "Shishū Sōjō" (Four-fold transmission).[12][51]
Under the umbrella of theLotus Sutra, Tendai integrates four main aspects of Mahayana Buddhist practice. This is often described with the compound En-Mitsu-Zen-Kai (圓密禪戒 “Perfect-Secret-Meditation-Precepts”). To these four key elements, the Pure Land Dharma Gate is often added. The main elements of Tendai practice are thus:[51]
To this, one can also add other elements that became integrated to Tendai practice, includingShinto andShugendō practices. It is due to this syncretic aspect of Tendai that it is sometimes termedIntegrated Buddhism (総合佛教Sōgōbukkyō).[51]
According to Saichō and other later Tendai scholars, the Perfect teaching of theLotus Sutra and the tantric doctrines and practices of Esoteric Buddhism had the same ultimate intent. This view of the equality and compatibility between the Tiantai Lotus teachings and Esoteric Buddhism was important for Saichō.[9][47] Unlike theShingon founderKūkai, Saichō did not see esoteric teachings as more powerful or superior to exoteric Tendai teaching and practice. Instead, Saichō held that all Buddhist teachings are included in the single intent of theLotus Sutra.[9][10] This idea is reflected in the saying "Shingon (esoteric Buddhism) and (Tien-tai) shikan are essentially one; therefore both traditions are propagated on one mountain" (from Shōshin'sTendai Shingon nishii doi sho).[4]
Certain later Tendai figures likeEnnin also argued that esoteric practices led to Buddhahood faster than exoteric (non-esoteric) practices and some (such as Annen) argued that they were theonly way to full Buddhahood.[47] These figures also often saw theLotus Sutra (which refers itself as "the secret essential of the buddhas" and "the secret treasure of the Tathagatha") as an esoteric text and this view has some precedent in the Chinese Tiantai tradition.[47]
Tendai's Shikan-gō (止觀業) tradition focuses on shikan (śamatha-vipaśyanā) meditation, especially on theFour Samadhis (四種三昧,shishu zanmai) as taught in Zhiyi'sMóhē zhǐguān (Great Cessation [and] Contemplation).[52] Saichō emphasized the importance of theFour Samādhis in hisKanjō Tendai-shū Nenbun Gakushō-shiki (Regulations for Tendai School Annual Ordinands), and he sought to establish special halls as a place for these practices.[53] TheFour Samādhis are foundational to Tendai Buddhism and are designed to cultivate deep states of meditative absorption (samādhi).
The Four-fold Samādhi (四種三昧 shishu-zammai) is outlined as follows:[53][54]
Other forms of Tendai meditation include the famoushiking meditation practice ofKaihōgyō (回峰行 Circling the mountain).[51]
Practices related to and veneration ofAmitābha and his pure land ofSukhavati in the Tendai tradition began with Saichō's disciple, Ennin. After journeying to China for further study and training, he brought back a practice called the "five-tonenembutsu" orgoe nenbutsu (五会念仏), which was a form of intonation practiced in China for reciting the Buddha's name. This contrasted with earlier practices in Japan starting in theNara period, where meditation on images of the Pure Land, typically in the form ofmandala, were practiced.[12][55]
However, both meditation on the Pure Land (kansō nenbutsu 観想念仏) and recitation of the Buddha's name (shōmyō nenbutsu 称名念仏) became an integral part of Pure Land practices in the Tendai tradition. In addition to the five-tonenembutsu brought back from China, Ennin also integrated a special monastic training program called thejōgyō zanmai (常行三昧,"Constantly Walkingsamadhi") originally promulgated by Zhiyi. In this practice, monks spend 90 days in retreat, circumambulating a statue of Amitābha constantly reciting his name.[12]
In addition to increasing monastic practices related to the Pure Land, monks also taught Pure Land practices to the lay community in the form of reciting the Buddha's name. The most famous of thesenenbutsu hijiri (念仏聖,"Itinerant Pure Land teachers") was a monk namedKūya (空也, 903–972).
Pure Land Buddhist thought was further developed by a Tendai monk namedGenshin (源信, 942–1017) who was a disciple of Ryōgen, the 18th chief abbot orzasu (座主) of Mount Hiei. Genshin wrote an influential treatise calledŌjōyōshū (往生要集; "The Essentials of Rebirth in the Pure Land"), which vividly contrasted the Sukhavati Pure Land of Amitābha with the descriptions of thehell realms in Buddhism. Further, Genshin promoted the popular notion of theLatter Age of the Dharma, which posited that society had degenerated to a point when they could no longer rely on traditional Buddhist practices, and would instead need to rely solely on Amitābha's grace to escapesaṃsāra. Genshin drew upon past Chinese Pure Land teachers such asDaochuo andShandao.[55]
Finally, Pure Land practices in Tendai were further popularized by former Tendai monkHōnen, who established the first independent Pure Land school, theJōdo-shū, and whose disciples carried the teachings to remote provinces in one form or another. This includes another ex-Tendai monk namedShinran, who eventually established the relatedJōdo Shinshū.
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A key element of Tendai isesoteric Buddhist practice and theory. This was originally known as "theshingon (ormikkyō) of the Tendai lineages" and was later namedTaimitsu ("Tendai Esotericism", 台密), distinguishing it from theShingon (Mantra) school, which is known as "Tōmitsu" (東密, literally, "the esotericism of the Tōji lineages").[17] Taimitsu, as a form of East Asian Esoteric Buddhism, holds that by making use ofmantras,mudras, andmandalas (known as "the three mysteries"), one is able to attain Buddhahood within this very body. Eventually, these esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the teachings of theLotus Sutra, which was also seen as an esoteric sutra (but only "in principle", not "in practice", since it did not include the practice of the three mysteries).[47]
The origins of Taimitsu are found inChinese Esoteric Buddhism.[56] As a result, Tendai esoteric ritual bears much in common withShingon, though some of the underlying doctrines and practices differ. Regarding textual basis, while Shingon mainly uses theMahavairocana Tantra and theVajrasekhara Sutra (seeing these as the highest and most superior texts), Tendai uses a larger corpus of texts, including theLotus Sutra and esoteric Lotus Sutra texts.[12] Other differences mainly relate to lineages and outlook. There are several lineages of Taimitsu, the main ones being the Sanmon 山門 (Mountain branch of Ennin's lineage, which has a further 13 sub-branches) and Jimon 寺門 (Temple branch of Enchin's lineage, which is more unified).[17]
According to Linda Dolce, "Saichō regarded esoteric Buddhism as equal to the Lotus-based Buddhist system that had been developed in China by Tiantai, as both embodied the soteriological idea of 'one vehicle'".[17] Later Taimitsu scholars, likeEnnin, classified esoteric scriptures into two types: those containing the principles of esoteric Buddhism (i.e. the non-duality of ultimate truth and worldly truth) were calledrimitsu, and those that teach the principlesand practices (i.e. the three mysteries) were calledriji gumitsu.[17] The first category was initially said to include theNirvana, Lotus Sutra,Vimalakīrti, andHuayan sūtras, all of which were seen as esotericin principle. The second category includes the tantric scriptures like theMahavairocana,Vajrasekhara, theSusiddhikāra Sūtra (Soshitsujikara), thePudichang jing 菩提場経 (Bodaijō kyō, T. 950), and theYuqi jing 瑜祇経 (Yugi kyō, T. 867).[17] Some Tendai scholars likeAnnen even elevated the esoteric teachings further, seeing them as the highest teachings of the Buddha, and the only way to enlightenment.[17] According to Paul Groner, this view subordinated theLotus Sutra to the esoteric scriptures.[47] According to Dolce, Annen "displaced other practices existent in Tendai as soteriologically incomplete practices", and turned esoteric rituals into the very embodiments of the ultimate truth (rather than just another type ofskillful means).[17]
This view was not accepted by all Tendai lineages however, and later figures likeHōjibō Shōshin (fl. 1153–1214) rejected the idea that esoteric practice was higher or superior to Tendai Mahayana practice (as taught in theMohe Zhiguan), since both of these traditions are ultimately founded on the middle way and both teach the contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas. Shōshin held that mantras and other esoteric practices were merely anotherskillful means for contemplating the middle way, and thus, the exoteric and esoteric were just different expressions of the same principle. Shōshin also argued that these teachings both derive from the same Buddha, sinceMahāvairocana and the Buddha of theLotus Sūtra are ultimately the same.[57][47] In some cases, Shōshin goes further, arguing that certain esoteric practices, such as those that make use of images likemandalas or lunar discs, were designed for those with dull faculties, while the Tendai practice of "discerning one's own mind" (Jp.kanjin, 觀心) is for those who are more advanced and do not require images.[58]
Later Tendai developments would also make theLotus Sutra a full "Practice Esotericism" (Jimitsu) sutra through the development of esoteric practices and texts that placed theLotus on the same level as the tantrism of theMahavairocana sutra.[59] To defend this view, Tendai scholars pointed to passages in theLotus Sutra itself, such as when the sutra refers to itself as "the secret essential of the buddhas" and "the secret treasure of the Thus-Come One". They also relied on the interpretations ofYixing.[47]
TheLotus Sutra underwent a process of "esotericization" in the medieval Tendai school, fueled by the tradition's engagement with Esoteric Buddhism. This esotericism did not originate in Japan, since there were esoteric sources written in China that Tendai relied on for their interpretations of theLotus Sutra. However, Lotus Esotericism became much more central in Japanese Tendai than in the mainland.[60] The most important Chinese sources for this tradition areYixing's (683–727)Darijing Shu (Commentary on the Mahāvairocana Sutra), which integrates Tiantai ideas with Chinesemantrayana, and theRitual Manual for the Contemplation of the Lotus Sutra (Fahua guanzhi yigui, 法華経観智儀軌), an esoteric manual. This manual describes adeity yoga practice based on theLotus Sutra which relies on reciting passages and mantras from the sutra, and arranging a ritual altar and a LotusMaṇḍala. TheLotus Contemplation Manual derives fromAmoghavajra's circle and was likely composed by him or his disciples.[60][17] In Japan, this rite was later adapted into important esoteric "Lotus Ritual" (Hokke Hō).[60]
Tendai monks developed these esoteric Lotus practices further, one of the most important ones being the Lotus Ritual (Hokke Hō), which combined recitations of theLotus Sutra with esoteric mantras and visualizations. These rituals center on reciting and contemplating the "Life Span of the Tathāgata" chapter and on visualizingPrabhutaratna and Śākyamuni in amandala (along with mudras and mantras). Both Buddhas became equated withMahāvairocana (of theVairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra), corresponding to the two aspects of Mahāvairocana embodied in theVajradhātu andGarbhadhātu Maṇḍalas respectively.[60] The rite also relies on the use of mantras and dhāraṇīs, including thedhāraṇīs taught in theLotus Sutra, thedaimoku (theLotus Sutra's title), along with the "Root Mantra of theLotus Sutra" (法華根本真言), which were believed to encapsulate the sutra's profound esoteric meaning.[60]
The Lotus rite's visual focus is the Lotus SutraMaṇḍala (Hokkekyo mandara 法華経曼荼羅), which is rooted in an esoteric interpretation of theLotus Sūtra, specifically the chapter concerning the Treasure Stūpa where Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna sit side by side. Its design features an eight-petaled lotus, a motif adapted from theWomb realm maṇḍala. The maṇḍala's structure, which arranges deities hierarchically around a central focus, draws on thedual-realm maṇḍalas of Esoteric Buddhism, and symbolizes the non-duality of theLotus Sutra with the mantrayana teaching.[60] A unique element of Tendai esotericism is the concept of unifying thedual-realm maṇḍalas (and the teachings of their respective tantric scriptures) through a third element which was associated with theSusiddhikara sūtra. This interpretation was also understood through the Tendai doctrine of the three truths. The third element ofsusiddhi (perfect realization) was considered to be like the third truth of the middle, thenon-dual unity of the reality of the dual-world mandalas. Since theSusiddhikara sūtra did not teach a specific mandala, the Lotus mandala was often used to represent this third esoteric truth.[49] In the Lotus mandala, the stūpa represents theDharma-body (dharmakāya), Prabhūtaratna corresponds to the Retribution body (sambhogakāya), and Śākyamuni aligns with the Manifestation body (nirmanakāya). The central court is identified with Dainichi of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, while the eight bodhisattvas correspond to the Eight Worthies of the Garbhadhātu Maṇḍala's eight-petaled lotus. In this interpretation, Śākyamuni is associated with Dainichi of the Garbhadhātu, Prabhūtaratna with Dainichi of the Vajradhātu, and the stūpa itself symbolizes the principle ofsusiddhi, representing a synthesis including all elements of both mandalas.[49]
The Tendai school's ethical teachings focus exclusively on theBodhisattva Precepts (C.pusajie, J.bostasukai 菩薩戒) drawn from theBrahmajala Sutra. Tendai ordinations do not make use of the traditionalDharmaguptakaVinayaPratimoksha set of monastic rules. Saichō argued in favor of this idea in hisKenkairon (顕戒論, "On promoting the Mahāyāna precepts"). This was a revolutionary change in East Asian Buddhism that was without precedent.[61][4] These bodhisattva precepts do not make a distinction between monastics and laypersons, and they do not discuss the minutiae of monastic life like the Pratimoksha does.[4]
The bodhisattva precepts in Tendai are all said to rely on three types of "pure precepts" (三聚浄戒,sanjujokai):[4]
According to Hazama Jikō:[4]
The first category includes the prohibitions against the ten major and forty-eight minor transgressions as explained in theBonmokyo 梵辋経 (T24, 997–1010). It also includes general restrictions against any kind of evil activity, whether physical, verbal, or mental. Any and all kinds of moral cultivation are included. The second category entails every kind of good activity, including but not limited to acts associated with the Buddhist categories of keeping precepts, the practice of concentration (samadhi), and the cultivation of wisdom. Also included are such worldly pursuits as dedication to scholarly excellence, or any effort aimed at self improvement. The third category refers not only to the effort to help and save all sentient beings through the perfection of the six Mahayana virtues (paramita, charity, morality, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom), but also includes such mundane activity as raising one's children with loving care, living for the sake of others, and dedicating oneself to the good of society.
The Tendai school made extensive use of the Lotus Sutra in its interpretation of the bodhisattva precepts, even though the sutra does not itself contains a specific list of precepts. Also, various passages from the sutra were used to defend the Tendai position not to follow the pratimoksha, since they state, for example, "we will not followśrāvaka ways."[62]
Saichō’s rejection of the Hīnayāna vinaya precepts stemmed from his understanding of theLotus Sutra as the ultimate expression of the Buddha's teachings. In his biography,Eizan Daishi den, Saichō expressed his commitment to abandoning the 250 Hīnayāna precepts and focused on the bodhisattva path. His interpretation of theLotus Sutra, particularly in the "Comfortable Practices" chapter, provided a basis for rejecting śrāvaka practices and precepts. Saichō’s reforms eventually led to the development of the "Perfect-Sudden Precepts", which emphasized the inherent Buddha-nature in all beings and allowed for a more flexible approach to monastic discipline.[63]
The bodhisattva precepts were thus seen in Tendai as being based on theLotus Sutra's teaching that all beings have the potential for Buddhahood and that they have a fundamental goodness, or Buddha-nature.[4] This was the fundamental ethical teaching for Tendai thought. Saichō also believed that the world had entered the age of Dharma decline (mappō) and that because of this, the Hinayana precepts were no longer able to be practiced and no longer needed. He also believed that the Japanese people were naturally inclined to the Mahayana Buddhism. Because of this, Saichō argued that only Mahayana precepts were needed.[4]
Some of Saichō's views on Mahayana precepts were drawn from the Tiantai mastersHuisi and Daosui and the teachings Chan masters likeBodhidharma,Dao-xuan (Dōsen, especially his commentary on theBrahmā's Net Sūtra) andDaoxin (Dōshin, particularly his "Manual of Rules of Bodhisattva Precepts").[61] These Chinese Chan masters emphasized formless practice (無相行) or attribute-less practice also known asanrakugyō (Ch. anlexing 安樂行, serene and pleasing activities), both in Chan meditation and in precept training. This refers to a way of contemplation that applies in all activities.[64] These various Chinese ideas about the integration of practice and precepts were integrated into Saichō's view of the "Perfect and Sudden Precepts" (Endonkai).[65]
During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, Tendai monks such as Ninkū (1307–1388) andAnnen (841–?) further developed the concept of the Perfect-Sudden Precepts. Annen, for example, argued that the precepts were rooted in the non-dual nature of reality, suggesting that even actions traditionally considered evil could be seen as expressions of the precepts if performed with the right intention. This interpretation, while controversial, highlighted the Tendai emphasis on the transformative power of the Lotus Sutra and its ability to reveal the ultimate truth of the Buddha's teachings.
Tendai doctrine allowed Japanese Buddhists toreconcile Buddhist teachings with the native religious beliefs and practices of Japan (now labeled "Shinto"). In the case of Shinto, the difficulty is the reconciliation of thepantheon of Japanese gods (kami), as well as with the myriad spirits associated with places, shrines or objects, with Buddhist teachings. These gods and spirits were initially seen as local protectors of Buddhism.[66]
Sannō Shintō 山王神道 was a specifically Tendai branch of syncretic Buddhist-Shinto religious practice, which revered kamis called the Mountain Kings (Sannō) or Sanno Sansei 山王三聖 (The Three Sacred [Deities] of Sanno) and was based onHie Taisha 日吉大社 a shrine on Mount Hiei.[66] TheTogakushi Shrine (戸隠神社,Togakushi Jinja) was also associated with the Tendai school before it was separated from Buddhist institutions by the Japanese state duringthe separation of Shinto from Buddhism in the 19th century.
These religious ideas eventually led to the development of a Japanese current of thought calledhonji suijaku (本地垂迹), which argued thatkami are simply local manifestations (thesuijaku or "traces") of the Buddhas (honji, "true nature"). This manifestation of the Buddhas was explained through the classic Mahayana doctrines ofskillful means and theTrikaya.[66]
Some Tendai Buddhist temples and mountains are also sites for the practice of the syncreticShugendō tradition. Shugendō is a mountain ascetic practice which also adopted Tendai and Shingon elements. This tradition focuses on ascetic practices on mountainous terrain.[67][68] The practice of Shugendō is most prominent among certain Tendai branches, like the Jimon-ha 寺門派 (the Onjōji branch). It is based on Shōgoin Temple, which houses the Honzan group (Honzanha), the Shugendō tradition most closely associated with Tendai.[67][68][69]
The classic Buddhist understanding of theFour Noble Truths posits that craving for pleasure, worldly desire and attachment must be cut off to put an end to suffering (dukkha). Inearly Buddhism, the emphasis, especially for monastics, was on avoiding activities that might arouse worldly desires, including many artistic endeavors like music and performance arts. This tendency toward rejecting certain popular art forms created a potential conflict with mainstreamEast Asian cultures.
However, laterMahayana views developed a different emphasis which embraced all the arts. In Japan, certain Buddhist rituals (which were also performed in Tendai) grew to include music and dance, and these became very popular with the people.[70] Doctrinally, these performative arts were seen asskillful means (hōben, Skt.upaya) of teaching Buddhism. Monks specializing in such arts were calledyūsō ("artistic monks").[71] The writing of religious poetry was also a major pursuit among certain Tendai as well as Shingon figures, like the Shingon priest Shukaku and the Tendai monkJien (1155–1225). These poets met together to discuss poetry in poetry circles (kadan).[72] According to Deal and Ruppert, "Shingon, Tendai and Nara cloisters had a great impact on the development of literary treatises and poetry houses."[72]
Another influential poet monk from the Tendai tradition wasFujiwara no Shunzei (1114–1204).[73] His son,Fujiwara no Teika was also influenced by the classic Tendai thought of Zhiyi. These two figures were central to the development of the aesthetic concept ofyūgen (幽玄, profound grace and subtlety).[73] According to William R. LaFleur, the development ofyūgen aesthetic theory was also influenced by the Tendai practice ofshikan meditation. According to LaFleur, for Shunzei's poetics, the beauty ofyūgen manifests a deep tranquility which reflects and is akin toshikan practice. This link is asserted by Shunzei in hisKurai futeisho.[74] These poets also understood the depth ofyūgen through the holistic Tendai metaphysics of interfusion.[74]
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The following ancestors or patriarchs (祖) form the main line of the ChineseTiantailineage:[75]
The Japanese Tendai founderSaichō (最澄, 767–822) was a student of the last two patriarchs on the list, Daosui (806-820) and Xingman (?–823), both of whom studied under Zhanran. Saichō received Tiantai teachings and texts from them atGuoqing temple on Mt. Tiantai. Saichō also studiedChinese Esoteric Buddhism under two Chinese esoteric masters (ācāryas): Shunxiao and Weixiang, from whom he received initiation into thedual-realm mandalas.[76] Furthermore, Saichō receivedChan (Zen) teachings in China from theOxhead (Jp. Gozu) school andNorthern schools.[77] He was a student of the Oxhead master Shunian (Shukunen), who resided at Chanlinsi (Zenrinji) Temple.[8] Saichō also brought over the first copy of thePlatform Sutra to Japan.[78]
A number of notable monks contributed to Tendai thought and its history afterSaichō, including:
During theKamakura period, numerous Tendai monastics founded new schools of Japanese Buddhism, today known as the schools ofNew "Kamakura Buddhism". All of them were initially ordained and trained at the Tendai center onMount Hiei. Key figures include:[79]
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