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| Tenavaram temple | |
|---|---|
தொண்டேசுவரம் கோவில் | |
  | |
| Religion | |
| Affiliation | Hinduism |
| District | Matara District |
| Province | Southern |
| Deity | Tenavarai Nayanar (LordVishnu and LordShiva) |
| Location | |
| Location | Dondra Head,Matara (formerly Matura) |
| Country | Sri Lanka |
  Location in Sri Lanka | |
| Coordinates | 5°55′21″N80°35′22″E / 5.92250°N 80.58944°E /5.92250; 80.58944 |
| Architecture | |
| Type | Dravidian architecture (Kerala style) |
| Completed | Tenavara Naga Risa Nila Kovil - Vishnu Shrine -BCE, exact date unknown Tenavara Ganeshwara Kovil - Ganesh Shrine - 790 CE by Rama Chandra Tenavara Vishnu Kovil - Vishnu shrine - 790 CE by Dappula Sen and Rama Chandra |
| Temple | 8 |
| Part ofa series on |
| Sri Lankan Tamils |
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Tenavaram temple (Tamil:தொண்டேசுவரம் கோயில்) (historically known as theTondeshwaramKovil,Tevanthurai Kovil orNaga-Risa Nila Kovil) is a historicHindu temple complex situated in the port town Tenavaram, Tevanthurai (orDondra Head),Matara) nearGalle,Southern Province, Sri Lanka. Its primary deity was a Hindu godTenavarai Nayanar (Upulvan) and at its zenith was one of the most celebrated Hindu temple complexes of the island, containing eight majorkovil shrines to a thousand deity statues of stone and bronze and two major shrines to Vishnu and Shiva. Administration and maintenance was conducted by residingHindu Tamil merchants during Tenavaram's time as a popular pilgrimage destination and famedemporium employing over five hundreddevadasis.[1]
The complex, bordered by a large quadranglecloister, was a collection of several historic HinduKovil shrines, with its principle shrine designed in theKerala andPallava style ofDravidian architecture. The central temple dedicated toVishnu (Tenavarai Nayanar) known asUpulvan to theSinhalese was the most prestigious and biggest, popular amongst its large Tamil population, pilgrims and benefactors of other faiths such as Buddhism, kings and artisans.[1] The other shrines that made up the Kovil Vatta were dedicated toGanesh,Murukan,Kannagi andShiva, widely exalted examples of stonework construction of the Dravidian style. The Shiva shrine is venerated as the southernmost of the ancientPancha Ishwarams of Lord Shiva (called Tondeswaram), built at coastal points around the circumference of the island in the classical period.
The Tenavaram temple owned the entire property and land of the town and the surrounding villages, ownership of which was affirmed through several royal grants in the early medieval period. Its keepers lived along streets of its ancientagraharam within the complex. Due to patronage by various royal dynasties and pilgrims across Asia, it became one of the most important surviving buildings of theclassical Dravidian architectural period by the late 16th century.
The temple compound was destroyed byPortuguese colonial Thome deSousa d'Arronches, who devastated the entire southern coast. The property was then handed over toCatholics. Tenavaram's splendor and prominence ranked it in stature alongside the other famous Pallava-developed medieval Hindu temple complex in the region,Koneswaram ofTrincomalee. Excavations at the complexmandapam's partially buried ruins of granite pillars, stairs and slab stonework over the entire town have led to numerous findings. Reflecting the high points of Pallava artistic influence and contributions to the south of the island are the temple's 5th- to 7th-century statues of Ganesh, theLingam, sculpture ofNandi and the Vishnu shrine's 10th-centuryMakaraThoranam (stone gateway), the frame and lintel of which include small guardians, a lustratedLakshmi, dancers, musicians,ganas, andyali-riders.
Tenavaram temple was built on vaulted arches on the promontory overlooking the Indian Ocean. The centralgopuram tower of thevimana and the other gopura towers that dominated the town were covered with plates of gilded brass, gold and copper on their roofs. Its outer body featured intricately carved domes, with elaborate arches and gates opening to various verandas and shrines of the complex, giving Tenavaram the appearance of a golden city to sailors who visited the port to trade and relied on its light reflecting gopura roofs for navigational purposes.
Dondra Head is known historically in Tamil asThen-thurai,Tevan-thurai,Tennavan-thurai,Tendhira Thottam,Tenavaram andTanaveram which are variations of the same meaning "Lord of the Southern Port" in the language.Then orTen is ananglicized form of the Tamil word forSouth whileTennavan ("Southerner") is a historic epithet denoting the Hindu God Shiva in the language, used by Tamil poets and simultaneously used as an honorable description of severalPandyan kings.Tevan isGod,Thurai meansport,Thottam means "estate" while varam or waram denotes the Lord's abodeIswaram.[2][3][4] The shrines' primary deity Vishnu shared the name of the town,Tenavarai Nayanar, at the southernmost point of the island. The northernmost Vishnu shrine of the island,Vallipuram Vishnu Kovil, houses the ancient deityVallipuramAlwar following a similar naming tradition.
The Ganesh shrine of the temple was known as theGaneshwaran Kovil and the Shiva shrine of the complex was known asNaga-Risa Nila Kovil. This name is possibly etymologically related toNagareshu, from the famous phraseNagareshu Kanchi coined by the 5th-century poetKalidasa in describingKanchipuram as the "best city."Nila means blue whileKovil orKoil means a Tamil Hindu temple in Tamil.[4][5] The whole complex was the southernmost shrine of the five ancientIswarams of Lord Shiva on the island of classical antiquity along withKoneswaram (Trincomalee),Naguleswaram (Keerimalai),Thiruketheeshwaram (Mannar) andMunneswaram (Puttalam).
In Pali the town is calledDevapura andDevanagara. In Sinhalese it has been referred to asDevinuwara, meaningCity of Gods andDevundara.
In English today the town is known asDondra orDondera. It was a prolific sea port and capital city in medieval Sri Lanka and housed merchants from aroundAsia, amongst whom were many traders fromTamil Nadu.
A map drawn by earlyGreek cartographers reveals the existence of a Hindu temple at the same location along the southern coast.Ptolemy in 98 CE marks the town as "Dagana" or "Dana" (Sacra Luna), a place "sacred to the moon," which geographers note corresponds to Tenavaram.[6] In this temple the principal deity was known as "Chandra Maul Eshwaran". On the forehead of the deity was a large precious stone shaped like a moon crescent. The 18th century Tamil textYalpana Vaipava Malai call the townTheivanthurai (God's Port) and the deity's nameSanthira Segaram ( Chandra Sekharam ) or "Lord Shiva, wearer of moon on his head". This shrine became known as theNaga-Risa Nila Kovil of Tenavaram by the medieval period, and as "Tondeswaram", one of the five ancientIshwarams of Shiva in the region.[3]
There is scattered literary and archeological evidence from local and foreign sources describing the division of the whole island in the first few centuries of the common era between two kingdoms. The accounts of 6th-century Greek merchantCosmas Indicopleustes who visited the island around the time of KingSimhavishnu ofPallava's rule in Tamilakam reveal the presence of two kings, one of whom was based in Jaffna, home to a great emporium, who ruled the coastal districts around the island. This Tamil kingdom evolved fromNāka Nadu of the ancientNāka Dynasty.Merchantguilds fromTamilakkam often built from scratch or maintained previously built shrines to Lord Shiva and Vishnu across South andSouth East Asia during the rule of Pallava,Chola andPandyan kings. During the conquest of Ceylon by Pallava KingNarasimhavarman I (630 - 668 CE) and the rule of the island by his grandfather and devout Vishnu devotee, King Simhavishnu (537 - 590 CE), many Pallava-built rock temples were erected in the region to various deities and this style of architecture remained popular and highly influential in the next few centuries.[7][8] The temple complex was developed with a Pallava style of architecture between the 6th and 8th century CE.
One tradition states that a temple shrine in Tenavaram was constructed by King Aggabodhi IV in the middle of the 7th century CE, fusing Dravidian stone-made temple construction with a local interpretation.[7] TheKegalla district ola manuscript found by archaeologistHarry Charles Purvis Bell records another popular tradition, involving the arrival of a red sandalwood Vishnu image at Tenavarai by the sea in 790 CE. King Dappula Sen was involved in restoring the Vishnu shrine of the complex during this time to house the image after envisioning its arrival in a dream. The manuscript indicates several Tamil pilgrims' arrived at Tenavaram at this time, and how the King granted its lands to the Hindus who accompanied an image of Vishnu. The Chief Brahmin Priest/merchant prince who brought the image was called Rama Chandra, (a name which alludes to LordRama, an incarnation of Vishnu). The sandalwood image was moved soon after to other shrines inland. Some scholars regard the story of a sandalwood image washing ashore to be mythical.[9][10] A 17th-century literature source details that right after the washing ashore of the wood image, Tamil Brahmins versed in Vaishnava lore fromRameswaram in Pallava-era Tamilakkam were invited to the town to fashion and import an image of Lord Vishnu to Tenavaram. Other sources indicate the Tamils brought the statue to Tenavaram for safe-keeping as Rameswaram was under attack. Rama Chandra founded the Ganesh Kovil of Tenavaram in 790, located at Vallemadama on the sea coast, where the waves struck its walls at the Kovil Vatta. The Naga Risa Nila Kovil of Shiva was in the vicinity of this area of Tenavaram. Rama Chandra's name was recited daily at the conclusion of worship during the early hours of the morning. Hymns in praise of God were recited by Tamil priests attached to the temple. These priests settled in the establishedagraharam. In traditionalHindu practice of architecture and town-planning, an agraharam consists of two rows of houses running north-south on either side of a road. At one end exists a temple to Shiva and at the other end, a temple to Vishnu. Another famous example of this isVadiveeswaram in Tamil Nadu.
The complex's many shrines are historically attested in grants, inscriptions and local literature. Epigraphical evidence in several languages found in the vicinity relate information about its shrines toMurukan, his goddess consorts, Ganesh, the goddess deification ofKannagi, Vishnu and Shiva. Tenavaram became a famous Tamil emporium over the following few centuries.[2][11][12] A ferry transported traders, pilgrims and chroniclers from Tenavaram to theChera and Chola kingdoms of Tamilakkam viaPuttalam on the western shore of the island (then an extension of theMalabar coast and HinduJaffna kingdom) and theGulf of Mannar from this time through to the late medieval period.[13]
The royal grant byDambadeniyan King Parakramabahu II, who ruled from 1236 to 1270, contains references to donations to the TenavaramKovil, renovating the shrine and reaffirming its land ownership and regulations to prevent evasion of customs duties at the port by traders at the estate. According to this epigraph,Tendiratota and its lands that were religious endowments of old were duly maintained by the king. The port was administered by an officer titled Mahapandita. Those coming from foreign countries were not allowed to set up places of business without permission and royal officials were required not to accept gifts from foreign merchants. His epigraph also mentions thedevalayam (a Tamil temple in formal speech) section of worship and Tenavaram's agraharam (brahmadeya or chaturvedimangalam) - theIyer orTamil Brahmin quarter of the heterogenous Tenavaram village as warranting protection. A close connection existed over a long period between the Iyers of the agraharam of Tenavaram and the kings who had exercised authority over the southern and southwestern lowlands.Pocaracan Pantitan of Tenavarai, who carried the honorary designationTenuvaraipperumal before his name, wrote theCaracotimalai, a treatise onastrology in metrical Tamil verse. The author recited it in the presence of the king at the court of Kurunegal in 1310. A panegyric account of the royal patron at this court, Parakramabahu IV (1303 – 1326) of Dambadeniya, is in the introductory stanzas of this work. The author's honorific title,Tenuvarai-Perumal, literally means "The Prince of Tenavarai." Several other Tamil Hindus are mentioned with the special designationTenuvarai Perumal in documents issued by the kings of theKotte Kingdom in the 15th and 16th centuries, such asBhuvanekabahu VII of Kotte. Among the names of many Hindus listed in the Kudumirissa Inscription are included those of two individuals who had the designation Tenuvarai-p-perumal. They are Tiskhanda Tenuvarapperumal and Sarasvati Tenuvarapperumal. These "Perumals" were officiating priests of the temple and exercised authority over the administration of the town and the temple.
The Dondra slab inscriptions record the granting of lands to the Vishnu shrine in the fourteenth century.[14] Endowments to the Shiva shrine and extensive donations of lands to it were made during the reign of KingAlagakkonara, aRaigama chief who ruled the south between 1397 and 1409.[15] The Naymanai inscription slab ofParakramabahu VI of Kotte (1412-1467), written in Tamil and Sanskrit inTamil andGrantha characters found in a jungle two miles north of Matara by Edward Müller, mentions that the king gave fields and gardens in the villages of Cunkankola, Pakarakaramullai, Vertuvai and Naymanai as endowments to Tenavaram. The grant was made for the specific purpose of providing alms for and feeding a group of twelve Brahmins at an alms-hall (Sattiram) named after "Devaraja", which was maintained regularly/daily without interruption (nicatam natakkira). The alms-hall was in the vicinity (iracarkal tiru – c - cannatiyil nisadam madakkira sattirattukku tiru-v-ullamparrina ur) or the premises of the holy shrine of the "god king" of Tenavaram. The conquest ofJaffna kingdom bySapumal Kumaraya, a military leader sent by the Kotte king in 1450, was celebrated in theKokila Sandesaya ("Message carried by Kokila bird") written in the 15th century and contains a contemporary description of the island traversed by the road taken by thecookoo bird, from Tenavaram in the south toNallur ("Beautiful City") inJaffna in the north. It and other extantSandesas mention the Vishnu shrine of Tenavaram and some of the gopurams' three storeys. TheTisara Sandesa,Kokila Sandesa andParavi Sandesa mention the Ganesh shrine's location on the sea coast of Tenavaram. The lands owned by the Shiva shrine were detailed by King Vijayabahu VI in a 1510 dated record.[16] Early 16th-century copperplate inscriptions of the King Vijayabahu VII detail the land grants made by the king in the town on the condition that the recipient paid tenfanams a year to the Vishnu shrine. The grants were to be enjoyed permanently by the children, the grandchildren, and the descendants of astrologers and veda – vyasaru, including Tenuvarai Perumala, a son of (one of) them.[14]
TheMoroccan travellerIbn Battuta visited the temple in the 14th century and described the deityDinawar as sharing the same name as the flourishing trade town in which He resided, made of gold and the size of a man with two large rubies as eyes "that lit up like lanterns during the night."[3][17] One thousand Hindus and Yogis were attached to this vast temple for services, with five hundred girls that danced and sang in front of the Mahavishnu idol.[18] All people living within the vicinity of the temple and who visited it were fed with monetary endowments that were made to the idol.[18]
The complex received revenues from seventy villages. Substantial donations of gold, silver silks and sandalwood were made from theChinese admiralZheng He to Tenavaram temple in 1411 CE, as detailed in theGalle Trilingual Inscription.[19] The text concerns offerings made by him and others to various religions including the God of TamilsTenavarai Nayanar, an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, on behalf of theYongle Emperor.[19] Several stone pillars here were erected through donation from Chinese kings, inscribed with letters of their nation as a token of their devotion to Tenavaram's idols. The chief deity mentioned and the donation of the trilingual inscription have also been connected to Shiva and his adjacent shrine -Nayanar were historicSaivite Tamil saints who worshipped Shiva and lived between the 5th and 10th centuries in Tamil Nadu. The admiral invoked the blessings of Hindu deities here for a peaceful world built on trade.[19] Portuguese cartographers such asTomé Pires who visited the island in the early 1500s describeTenavarqe as an important trading and navigation port of the south, full of precious stones.[20]
Tenavaram's gold-copper gilded roofs earned it fame amongst pilgrims and sailors, due to navigational purposes and its contribution to the town's appearance as a "golden city." Encompassed by a quadrangular cloister which opened under verandahs and terraces to the various deities' shrines, the complex contained gardens of shrubs and trees which priests used to pluck offerings to the deities.[2][21] ThePortuguese historianDiogo do Couto stated that along withAdam's Peak, Tenavarai was the most celebrated temple on the island, and the most visited pilgrimage site of the south with a circuit of a full league, while his fellow Portuguese historian De Quieroz compares the temple port town's splendor to that of theKoneswaram temple ofTrincomalee and states that Lord Vishnu was the primary deity of the destroyed shrine of Tenavarai.[22][23]
The Portuguese called the great shrine the "Pagode of Tanauarê."[22] It was destroyed in February 1588 by soldiers led by the Portuguese colonial Thome de Souza d'Arronches, a naval captain.[6] The temple was attacked to distract theSitawakan kingRajasimha I who was laying siege to the cityColombo on the island's west coast at the time. De Sousa entered the complex to find it empty, giving up the temple to the plunder of 120 accompanying soldiers before looting its riches of ivory, gems and sandalwood, overthrowing thousands of statues and idols of the temple before leveling the complex and defiling the inner court by slaughtering cows there. The area was then burnt. Also destroyed was the deity's magnificent woodentemple car.[2][23][24] De Quieroz, writing a century after the destruction, states that a largeCatholic Church, the St. Lucia's Cathedral was then built on the temple's foundation byFranciscans, sufficed to maintain three Portuguese churches.[22] Ruins of several granite pillars from one of the Tenavaram shrines and an intricately designed stone doorway retain Pallava architectural influence, similar to rediscovered pillars of the ancient Koneswaram temple that was destroyed almost forty years later.[2]James Emerson Tennent describes Tenavaram as the most sumptuous Hindu temple complex of the island before its destruction.[2]
18th-century chroniclers such asorientalist CaptainColin Mackenzie and the author Robert Percival described the Hindu ruins of several temples that they saw in the town as contemporary to the finest examples of surviving ancient Tamil architecture and sculpture of theCoromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu.[25][26] The granite slabs, stone works and pillars of the ruins include several elephant heads and carvings of naked men and women and indicated lingam worship to the visitors.[26][27] James Cordiner, writing in 1807, described the colonnade of 200 granite pillars having curved bases and capitals and others rough edged, forming an avenue to the sea, leading to an intricately carved doorway with several Hindu sculptures attached. He describes intersections of rows of pillars with this avenue proceeding to the right and left. Cordiner recounts the discovery of the ancient stone image ofGanesh worshipped in a mud hut at the site. The shrine's well had been covered by a stone slab. Another shrine dedicated toMurugan ofKathirkamam was also present and revered during his visit. Many of the stones of the ruins of the Tenavaram complex were used to build the Matara Fort by the colonists.[28]
Sinhalese Buddhist temples of smaller size and a much later period had come to be erected over the Tamil Hindu ruins in some locations according to their observations.[29] The discoveries of the late 20th century indicate that a Buddhist Vihara has come to be erected where the Lord Shiva or Ganesh shrine of the complex has been located by archaeologists.[11]
A small stone building currently called theGalge orGalgane at Tenavaram that once is held to have supported a brick dome or upper storeys (Vimana tower) atop its roof displays a Dravidian provincial style of construction and architecture assigned to the late Pallava period with strong affiliations to theKailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram. Likely to have been theVimanam-Garbhagriha orSreekovil of one of the shrines, this building was reconstructed/repaired in 1947. It is a simple cuboid stone room structure with a flat roof currently atop its sanctum.
A Shiva lingam sculpture was found in the foreground of theOthpilima Vihara at the site in 1998 by a gardener along with a stone image of Nandi. It is 4 ft high and 2½ feet wide.[11] A stone image of Ganesh and Nandi had been excavated decades earlier at the siteKovil Vatta - gardens of a newly constructed Buddhist Vihara in the Vallemadama area of Tevan Thurai.
The lingam's large size has led archaeologists to conclude it could be the principal idol of the ancient temple. TheAvudaiyar or the pedestal of the Shiva linga is a thin slab; the upright or vertical portion is tall and slender.[11] TheNandi ishapam (statue of Nandi) found with the lingam dates from thePallava era. Other discoveries include statues of the Hindu god Ganesh and a goddess said to bePattini/Kannagi.[11] The garland decoratedgateway to the original shrine, dating from the 10th century, is well preserved at the site. One of two styles ofThoranam to typical Kerala style temples, (lion-sea dragon or peacock crowned), theMakara Thoranam's (gateway's) frame and lintel include small guardians, dancers, musicians,ganas, andyali-riders. There is a lustration of the goddessLakshmi in the center of the lintel.
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