Projects to build the hypothetical "Third Temple" have not come to fruition in the modern era, though the Temple in Jerusalem still features prominently inJudaism.[2] As an object of longing and a symbol of future redemption, the Temple has been commemorated in Jewish tradition through prayer, liturgical poetry, art, poetry, architecture, and other forms of expression.
Outside of Judaism, the Temple (and today's Temple Mount) also carries a high level of significance inIslam andChristianity. One of the early Arabic names for Jerusalem is Bayt al-Maqdis, which preserves the memory of the Temple. The Temple Mount is home to two monumental Islamic structures, theDome of the Rock andAl-Aqsa Mosque, which date to theUmayyad period. The site, known to Muslims as the "Al-Aqsa Mosque compound" orHaram al-Sharif, is considered thethird-holiest site in Islam. The Christian New Testament and tradition hold that important events inJesus' life took place in the Temple, and theCrusaders attributed the name "Templum Domini" ("Temple of the Lord") to the Dome of the Rock.
Etymology
The Hebrew name given in theHebrew Bible for the building complex is eitherMikdash (Hebrew:מקדש), as used in Exodus,[3] or simplyBayt /Beit Adonai (Hebrew:בית), as used in 1 Chronicles.[4]
Inrabbinic literature, the temple sanctuary is calledBeit HaMikdash (Hebrew:בית המקדש), meaning, "The Holy House", and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name.[5][better source needed] In classic English texts, however, the word "Temple" is used interchangeably, sometimes having the strict connotation of the Temple precincts, with its courts (Greek:ἱερὸν), while at other times having the strict connotation of the Temple Sanctuary (Greek:ναός).[6] While Greek and Hebrew texts make this distinction, English texts do not always do so.
Jewish rabbi and philosopherMaimonides gave the following definition of "Temple" in hisMishne Torah (Hil.Beit Ha-Bechirah):
They are enjoined to make, in what concerns it (i.e. the building of the Temple), a holy site and an inner-sanctum,[a] and where there is positioned in front of the holy site a certain place that is called a 'Hall' (Hebrew:אולם). The three of these places are called 'Sanctuary' (Hebrew:היכל). They are [also] enjoined to make a different partition surrounding the Sanctuary, distant from it, similar to the screen-like hangings of the court that were in the wilderness.[7] All that which is surrounded by this partition, which, as noted, is like the court of theTabernacle, is called 'Courtyard' (Hebrew:עזרה), whereas all of it together is called 'Temple' (Hebrew:מקדש) [lit.'the Holy Place'].[8][b]
According to theBook of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple was called for byCyrus the Great and began in 538 BCE,[14] after the fall of theNeo-Babylonian Empire the year before.[15] According to some 19th-century calculations, work started later, in April 536 BCE[16] and was completed on 21 February, 515 BCE, 21 years after the start of the construction. This date is obtained by coordinating Ezra 3:8–10[17] (the third day ofAdar, in the sixth year of the reign ofDarius the Great) with historical sources.[18] The accuracy of these dates is contested by some modern researchers, who consider the biblical text to be of later date and based on a combination of historical records and religious considerations, leading to contradictions between different books of the Bible and making the dates unreliable.[19] The new temple was dedicated by the Jewish governorZerubbabel. However, with a full reading of the Book of Ezra and theBook of Nehemiah, there were four edicts to build the Second Temple, which were issued by three kings: Cyrus in 536 BCE (Ezra ch. 1),Darius I of Persia in 519 BCE (ch. 6), andArtaxerxes I of Persia in 457 BCE (ch. 7), and finally by Artaxerxes again in 444 BCE (Nehemiah ch. 2).[20]
According to classical Jewish sources, another demolition of the Temple was narrowly avoided in 332 BCE when the Jews refused to acknowledge the deification ofAlexander the Great of Macedonia, but Alexander was placated at the last minute by astute diplomacy and flattery.[21]
After Jerusalem came underSeleucid rule,Antiochus III attempted to introduce theGreek pantheon into the temple. A rebellion ensued and was brutally crushed, but no further action by Antiochus was taken. WhenAntiochus IV Epiphanes assumed the Seleucid thrown he immediately attempted to enforce universal Hellenization once again. During this time, several incidents considered offensive under traditional Jewish practice occurred in the temple, to include erecting a statute of Zeus and the sacrifice of pigs. This led to a two year civil war in Judea in which traditionalist rebels led byMattathias fought against both Seleucid forces and the Hellenized Judean forces who administered Judea in Antiochus's name. After the rebels successfully overthrew Seleucid rule, Mattathias' sonJudah Maccabee re-dedicated the temple in 164 BCE, giving rise to the celebration ofHanukkah.[9]
By the 7th century, the site had fallen into disrepair under Byzantine rule. After the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in the 7th century during theRashidun Caliphate, a mosque was built by caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (reigned 634–644 CE) who first cleared the site of debris and then erected a mihrab and simple mosque on the same site as the present mosque. This first mosque construction was known as Masjid al-'Umari. During theUmayyad caliphate, the caliphAbd al-Malik ibn Marwan ordered a renovation of theIslamic mosque, constructing theDome of the Rock, on the Temple Mount. The mosque has stood on the mount since 691 CE; theJami Al-Aqsa. It has been renovated several times since, including during the Abbasid, Fatimid, Mamluk, and Ottoman eras.[27]
Fragment of the Temple Warning Inscription at theIsrael Museum.
TheTrumpeting Place inscription, a stone (2.43×1 m) withHebrew writing"To the Trumpeting Place" uncovered during archaeological excavations byBenjamin Mazar at the southern foot of theTemple Mount is believed to be a part of the complex of the Second Temple.
Concrete finds from the Second Temple include theTemple Warning inscriptions and theTrumpeting Place inscription, two surviving pieces of the Herodian expansion of the Temple Mount. The Temple Warning inscriptions forbid the entry of pagans to the Temple, a prohibition also mentioned by the 1st century CE historianJosephus. These inscriptions were on the wall that surrounded the Temple and prevented non-Jews from entering the temple's courtyard. The Trumpeting Place inscription was found at the southwest corner of Temple Mount, and is believed to mark the site where the priests used to declare the advent of Shabbat and other Jewish holidays.[29]
Ritual objects used in the temple service were carried off and many are likely located in museum collections, in particular, that of theVatican Museums.[30]
Location
The Foundation Stone in the floor of theDome of the Rock shrine inJerusalem. The round hole at upper left penetrates to a small cave, known as theWell of Souls, below. The cage-like structure just beyond the hole covers the stairway entrance to the cave (south is towards the top of the image).The bottom of the Foundation Stone, photo taken from theWell of Souls
There are three main theories as to where the Temple stood: where the Dome of the Rock is now located, to the north of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Asher Kaufman), or to the east of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Joseph Patrich of theHebrew University).[31]
The exact location of the Temple is a contentious issue, as questioning the exact placement of the Temple is often associated withTemple denial. Since theHoly of Holies lay at the center of the complex as a whole, the Temple's location is dependent on the location of the Holy of Holies. The location of the Holy of Holies was even a question less than 150 years after the Second Temple's destruction, as detailed in theTalmud. Chapter 54 of theTractate Berakhot states that the Holy of Holies was directly aligned with theGolden Gate, which, assuming the current gate follows the same course as the now buried Herodian gate, would have placed the Temple slightly to the north of the Dome of the Rock, as Kaufman postulated.[32] However, chapter 54 of theTractate Yoma and chapter 26 of theTractate Sanhedrin assert that the Holy of Holies stood directly on theFoundation Stone, which agrees with the traditional view that the Dome of the Rock stands on the Temple's location.[33][34]
In the case of the last and most elaborate structure, theHerodian Temple, the structure consisted of the wider Temple precinct, the restricted Temple courts, and the Temple building itself:
Temple precinct, located on the extended Temple Mount platform, and including the Court of the Gentiles
Court of the Israelites, reserved for ritually pure Jewish men
Court of the Priests, whose relation to the Temple Court is interpreted in different ways by scholars
Temple Court orAzarah, with the Brazen Laver (kiyor), the Altar of Burnt Offerings (mizbe'ah), the Place of Slaughtering, and the Temple building itself
The Temple edifice had three distinct chambers:
Temple vestibule or porch (ulam)
Temple sanctuary (hekhal orheikal), the main part of the building
Holy of Holies (Kodesh HaKodashim ordebir), the innermost chamber
Diagram of the Temple (top of diagram is north)
According to theTalmud, the Women's Court was to the east and the main area of the Temple to the west.[41] The main area contained the butchering area for the sacrifices and the Outer Altar on which portions of most offerings were burned. An edifice contained theulam (antechamber), thehekhal (the "sanctuary"), and theHoly of Holies. The sanctuary and the Holy of Holies were separated by a wall in the First Temple and by two curtains in the Second Temple. The sanctuary contained theseven branched candlestick, the table ofshowbread and theIncense Altar.
The main courtyard had thirteen gates. On the south side, beginning with the southwest corner, there were four gates:
The Upper Gate (Sha'ar HaElyon)
The Kindling Gate (Sha'ar HaDelek), where wood was brought in
The Gate of Firstborns (Sha'ar HaBechorot), where people with first-born animal offerings entered
The Water Gate (Sha'ar HaMayim), where the Water Libation entered onSukkot/the Feast of Tabernacles
On the north side, beginning with the northwest corner, there were four gates:
The Gate of Jeconiah (Sha'ar Yechonyah), where kings of the Davidic line enter andJeconiah left for the last time to captivity after being dethroned by the King of Babylon
The Gate of theOffering (Sha'ar HaKorban), where priests entered withkodshei kodashim offerings
TheWomen's Gate (Sha'ar HaNashim), where women entered into theAzara or main courtyard to perform offerings[42]
The Gate of Song (Sha'ar HaShir), where theLevites entered with their musical instruments.
TheHall of Hewn Stones (Hebrew: לשכת הגזיתLishkat haGazit), also known as theChamber of Hewn Stone, was the meeting place, or council-chamber, of theSanhedrin during theSecond Temple period (6th century BCE – 1st century CE). TheTalmud deduces that it was built into the north wall of the Temple in Jerusalem, half inside the sanctuary and half outside, with doors providing access both to the temple and to the outside. The chamber is said to have resembled abasilica in appearance,[43] having two entrances: one in the east and one in the west.[44]
On the east side was the Gate of Nicanor, between the Women's Courtyard and the main Temple Courtyard, which had two minor doorways, one on its right and one on its left. On the western wall, which was relatively unimportant, there were two gates that did not have any name.
TheMishnah lists concentric circles of holiness surrounding the Temple: Holy of Holies; Sanctuary; Vestibule; Court of the Priests; Court of the Israelites; Court of the Women; Temple Mount; the walled city ofJerusalem; all the walled cities of theLand of Israel; and the borders of the Land of Israel.
The Talmud speaks also of important presents which QueenHelena of Adiabene gave to the Temple at Jerusalem.[45] "Helena had a golden candlestick made over the door of the Temple," to which statement is added that when the sun rose its rays were reflected from the candlestick and everybody knew that it was the time for reading the Shema'.[46] She also made a golden plate on which was written the passage of thePentateuch[47] which the Kohen read when a wife suspected of infidelity was brought before him.[48] In theJerusalem Talmud, tractate Yoma iii. 8 the candlestick and the plate are confused.
The Temple was the place whereofferings described in the course of the Hebrew Bible were carried out, including daily morning and afternoon offerings and special offerings onSabbath andJewish holidays.Levites recitedPsalms at appropriate moments during the offerings, including the Psalm of the Day, special psalms for thenew month, and other occasions, theHallel during major Jewish holidays, and psalms for special sacrifices such as the "Psalm for the Thanksgiving Offering" (Psalm 100).
As part of the daily offering, a prayer service was performed in the Temple which was used as the basis of the traditional Jewish(morning) service recited to this day, including well-known prayers such as theShema, and thePriestly Blessing. TheMishna describes it as follows:
The superintendent said to them, bless one benediction! and they blessed, and read the Ten Commandments, and the Shema, "And it shall come to pass if you will hearken", and "And [God] spoke...". They pronounced three benedictions with the people present: "True and firm", and the "Avodah" "Accept, Lord our God, the service of your people Israel, and the fire-offerings of Israel and their prayer receive with favor. Blessed is He who receives the service of His people Israel with favor" (similar to what is today the 17th blessing of the Amidah), and the Priestly Blessing, and on the Sabbath they recited one blessing; "May He who causes His name to dwell in this House, cause to dwell among you love and brotherliness, peace and friendship" on behalf of the weekly Priestly Guard that departed.
In addition to the sacrifices, the Temple was considered a special location for prayer to God:
When Your people Israel are smitten down before the enemy, when they sin against You, if they turn again to You, and confess Your name, and pray and make supplication to Youin this house - may You hear in heaven, and forgive the sin of Your people Israel, and bring them back to the land which You gave to their fathers. ... If there be in the land famine, if there be pestilence, if there be blasting or mildew, locust or caterpillar; if their enemy besiege them in the land of their cities; whatever plague, whatever sickness there be; whatever prayer and supplication be made by any person of all Your people Israel, who shall know every man the plague of his own heart, and spread forth his handstoward this house - may You hear in heaven Your dwelling-place, and forgive, and do, and render to every man according to all his ways, whose heart You know.[49]
In the Talmud
SederKodashim, the fifth order, or division, of theMishnah (compiled between 200 and 220 CE), provides detailed descriptions and discussions of the religious laws connected withTemple service including thesacrifices, the Temple and its furnishings, as well asthe priests who carried out the duties and ceremonies of its service.Tractates of the order deal with the sacrifices of animals, birds, andmeal offerings, the laws of bringing a sacrifice, such as thesin offering and theguilt offering, and the laws of misappropriation of sacred property. In addition, the order contains a description of the Second Temple (tractateMiddot), and a description and rules about the daily sacrifice service in the Temple (tractateTamid).[50][51][52]
In theBabylonian Talmud, all the tractates haveGemara – rabbinical commentary and analysis – for all their chapters; some chapters of Tamid, and none on Middot and Kinnim. TheJerusalem Talmud has no Gemara on any of the tractates of Kodashim.[51][52]
The Talmud (Yoma 9b) describes traditional theological reasons for the destruction: "Why was the first Temple destroyed? Because the three cardinal sins were rampant in society: idol worship, licentiousness, and murder… And why then was the second Temple – wherein the society was involved in Torah, commandments and acts of kindness – destroyed? Because gratuitous hatred was rampant in society."[53][54][better source needed]
Part of the traditional Jewishmorning service, the part surrounding the Shema prayer, is essentially unchanged from the daily worship service performed in the Temple. In addition, theAmidah prayer traditionally replaces the Temple's dailytamid and special-occasionMussaf (additional) offerings (there are separate versions for the different types ofsacrifices). They are recited during the times their corresponding offerings were performed in the Temple.
The Temple is mentioned extensively inOrthodoxservices.Conservative Judaism retains mentions of the Temple and its restoration, but removes references to thesacrifices. References to sacrifices on holidays are made in the past tense, and petitions for their restoration are removed. Mentions in Orthodox Jewish services include:
A daily recital of Biblical and Talmudic passages related to thekorbanot (sacrifices) performed in the Temple(See korbanot insiddur).
References to the restoration of the Temple and sacrificial worships in the dailyAmidah prayer, the central prayer in Judaism.
A traditional personal plea for the restoration of the Temple at the end of private recitation of the Amidah.
A prayer for the restoration of the "house of our lives" and theshekhinah (divine presence) "to dwell among us" is recited during the Amidah prayer.
Recitation of the Psalm of the day; thepsalm sung by theLevites in the Temple for that day during the daily morning service.
Numerous psalms sung as part of the ordinary service make extensive references to the Temple and Temple worship.
Recitation of the specialJewish holiday prayers for the restoration of the Temple and their offering, during theMussaf services on Jewish holidays.
Special services forSukkot (Hakafot) contain extensive (but generally obscure) references to the special Temple service performed on that day.
Mourning and commemoration
Fast days
The destruction of the Temple is mourned on the Jewish fast day ofTisha B'Av. Three other minor fasts (Tenth ofTevet, 17th ofTammuz, and Third ofTishrei), also mourn events leading to or following the destruction of the Temple. During the three-week period preceding Tisha B'Av, weddings and haircuts are forbidden.[55] Additionally, many Jews abstain from eating meat during the first eight days of Av.[55]
Avodah, apiyyut (Jewish liturgical poem) recited on Yom Kippur, is a poetic depiction of the High Priest's ritual on that day.[55]
Jewish weddings
Jewish wedding ceremonies traditionally conclude with the groom breaking a glass in remembrance of the destruction of Jerusalem.[55] This act is often accompanied by the reciting ofPsalm 137:5–6:[56]
If I forget you, O Jerusalem, Let my right hand wither;
Let my tongue cleave to my palate If I cease to think of you,
There are also mourning practices which are observed at all times, for example, the requirement to leave part of the house unplastered.
Communal customs
In addition to the customs observed by Jews universally, some Jewish communities developed their own unique ways to commemorate the Temple's destruction. In late medieval Europe, Jewish brides would often wear a large, decorative ring symbolizing the Temple, while grooms would place ashes on their heads.[55] In Jewish communities ofTripoli andDjerba, a tradition recorded by chronicler Mordechai HaCohen (1856–1929) held that a bride would throw a hen's egg, kept in her bosom, against the wall of her new home as a sign of mourning for the destruction of the Temple.[57]
Recent history
The Temple Mount, along with the entire Old City of Jerusalem, was captured from Jordan by Israel in 1967 during theSix-Day War, allowing Jews once again to visit the holy site.[58][better source needed][59] Jordan had occupied East Jerusalem and the Temple Mount immediately following Israel's declaration of independence on May 14, 1948. Israel officially unifiedEast Jerusalem, including the Temple Mount, with the rest of Jerusalem in 1980 under theJerusalem Law, thoughUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 478 declared the Jerusalem Law to be in violation of international law.[citation needed] TheJerusalem Islamic Waqf, based in Jordan, has administrative control of the Temple Mount.[citation needed]
An imaginary view of the Temple, on a huge base in the foreground, 1721
According to Matthew 24:2,[60] Jesus predicts the destruction of the Second Temple. This idea, of the Temple as thebody of Christ, became a rich and multi-layered theme in medieval Christian thought (where Temple/body can be the heavenly body of Christ, theecclesial body of the Church, and the Eucharistic body on the altar).[61]
Islam
The Temple Mount bears significance in Islam as it acted as a sanctuary for the Hebrew prophets and theIsraelites. Islamic tradition says that a temple was first built on the Temple Mount bySolomon, the son ofDavid. After the destruction of the second temple, it was rebuilt by the secondRashidun Caliph,Omar, which stands until today asAl-Aqsa Mosque. Traditionally referred to as the "Farthest Mosque" (al-masjid al-aqṣa'literally "utmost site of bowing (in worship)" though the term now refers specifically tothe mosque in the southern wall of the compound which today is known simply asal-haram ash-sharīf "the noble sanctuary"), the site is seen as the destination ofMuhammad'sNight Journey, one of the most significant events recounted in theQuran and the place of his ascentheavenwards thereafter (Mi'raj). Muslims view the Temple in Jerusalem as their inheritance, being the followers of the last prophet of God and believers in every prophet sent, including the prophets Moses and Solomon. To Muslims,Al-Aqsa Mosque is not built on top of the temple, rather, it is the Third Temple, and they are the true believers who worship in it, whereas Jews and Christians are disbelievers who do not believe in God's final prophetsJesus andMuhammad.[62][63]
In Islam, Muslims are encouraged to visit Jerusalem and pray at Al-Aqsa Mosque. There are over fortyhadith about Al-Aqsa Mosque and the virtue of visiting and praying in it, or at least sending oil to light its lamps. In a hadith compiled byAl-Tabarani,Bayhaqi, andSuyuti, the Prophet Muhammad said, "A prayer inMakkah (Ka’bah) is worth 1,000,000 times (reward), a prayer inmy mosque (Madinah) is worth 1,000 times and a prayer in Al-Aqsa Sanctuary is worth 500 times more reward than anywhere else." Another hadith compiled by imamsMuhammad al-Bukhari,Muslim, andAbu Dawud expounds on the importance of visiting the holy site. In another hadith the prophet Muhammad said, "You should not undertake a special journey to visit any place other than the following three Masjids with the expectations of getting greater reward: the Sacred Masjid of Makkah (Ka’bah), this Masjid of mine (the Prophet’s Masjid in Madinah), and Masjid Al-Aqsa (of Jerusalem)."[64]
According toSeyyed Hossein Nasr, professor of Islamic Studies at George Washington University, Jerusalem (i.e., the Temple Mount) has the significance as a holy site/sanctuary ("haram") for Muslims primarily in three ways, the first two being connected to the Temple.[65] First, Muhammad (and his companions) prayed facing the Temple in Jerusalem (referred to as "Bayt Al-Maqdis", in theHadiths) similar to the Jews before changing it to theKaaba in Mecca sixteen months after arriving inMedina following the verses revealed (Sura 2:144, 149–150). Secondly, during the Meccan part of his life, he reported to have been to Jerusalem by night and prayed in the Temple, as the first part of his otherworldly journey (Isra and Mi'raj).
ImamAbdul Hadi Palazzi, leader of Italian Muslim Assembly, quotes the Quran to support Judaism's special connection to the Temple Mount. According to Palazzi, "The most authoritative Islamic sources affirm the Temples". He adds that Jerusalem is sacred to Muslims because of its prior holiness to Jews and its standing as home to the biblical prophets and kings David and Solomon, all of whom he says are sacred figures in Islam. He claims that the Quran "expressly recognizes that Jerusalem plays the same role for Jews that Mecca has for Muslims".[66]
Ezekiel's Temple as imagined byCharles Chipiez in the 19th century."Ground Plan of Ezekiel's Temple" by dispensationalist authorA. C. Gaebelein
Ever since the Second Temple's destruction, a prayer for the construction of a Third Temple has been a formal and mandatory part of the thrice-dailyJewish prayer services. However, the question of whether and when to construct the Third Temple is disputed both within the Jewish community and without; groups within Judaism argue both for and against construction of a new Temple, while the expansion ofAbrahamic religion since the 1st century CE has made the issuecontentious withinChristian andIslamic thought as well. Furthermore, the complicatedpolitical status of Jerusalem makes reconstruction difficult, while Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock have been constructed at the traditional physical location of the Temple.
In 363 CE, the Roman emperorJulian had orderedAlypius of Antioch to rebuild the Temple as part of his campaign to strengthen non-Christian religions.[67] The attempt failed, with contemporary accounts mentioning divine fire falling from Heaven but also perhaps due to sabotage, an accidental fire, or anearthquake in Galilee.
TheBook of Ezekiel prophesies what would be the Third Temple, noting it as an eternal house of prayer and describing it in detail.
In media
A journalistic depiction of the controversies around the Jerusalem Temple was presented in the 2010 documentaryLost Temple by Serge Grankin. The film contains interviews with religious and academic authorities involved in the issue. German journalist Dirk-Martin Heinzelmann, featured in the film, presents the point of view of Prof. Joseph Patrich (the Hebrew University), stemming from the underground cistern mapping made byCharles William Wilson (1836–1905).[68]
^The historianJosephus echoes this same theme, when he writesThe Jewish War 5.5.2. (5.193–194): "When one proceeds through the cloisters to the second court of the temple, there was a stone partition all round, whose height was three cubits and of most elegant construction. Upon it stood pillars, at equal distances from one another, declaring the law of purity, some in Greek and some in Roman letters, that 'no foreigner should go within the Holy Place,' for that second [court of the] temple was called 'the Holy Place,' and was ascended to by fourteen steps from the first court."
^Williamson, G. A., ed. (1980).Josephus – The Jewish War. Middlesex, U.K.: The Penguin Classics. p. 290 (note 2).OCLC633813720.Throughout this translation 'Sanctuary' represents Greeknaos and denotes the central shrine, while 'Temple' representshieron and includes the courts, colonnades, etc. surrounding the shrine. (OCLC1170073907) (reprint)
^Edelman, Diana (2014)."The Seventy-Year Tradition Revisited".The Origins of the 'Second' Temple: Persion Imperial Policy and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem (reprint, revised ed.). Routledge. pp. 103–104.ISBN978-1-84553-016-7.Archived from the original on 11 March 2020. Retrieved8 January 2020.
^Birnbaum, Philip (1975)."Kodashim".A Book of Jewish Concepts. New York, New York: Hebrew Publishing Company. pp. 541–542.ISBN088482876X.
^abEpstein, Isidore, ed. (1948). "Introduction to Seder Kodashim".The Babylonian Talmud. Vol. 5. Singer, M. H. (translator). London: The Soncino Press. pp. xvii–xxi.
^abArzi, Abraham (1978). "Kodashim".Encyclopedia Judaica. Vol. 10 (1st ed.). Jerusalem, Israel: Keter Publishing House Ltd. pp. 1126–1127.
^Ha-Cohen, Mordecaı̈; Goldberg, Harvey E.; Ha-Cohen, Mordecaı̈ (1980).The book of Mordechai: a study of the Jews of Libya. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues. pp. 66, 117, 124.ISBN978-0-89727-005-2.
^See Jennifer A. Harris, "The Body as Temple in the High Middle Ages", in Albert I. Baumgarten ed.,Sacrifice in Religious Experience, Leiden, 2002, pp. 233–256.
^"Lost Temple". 1 January 2000.Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved1 July 2018 – via IMDb.
^abcdeMonson, John M. (June 1999)."The Temple of Solomon: Heart of Jerusalem". In Hess, Richard S.; Wenham, Gordon J. (eds.).Zion, city of our God | C. The Ain Dara Temple:A New Parallel from Syria. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 12–19.ISBN978-0-8028-4426-2.Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved15 February 2011.
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