| Teff | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Clade: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Poaceae |
| Subfamily: | Chloridoideae |
| Genus: | Eragrostis |
| Species: | E. tef |
| Binomial name | |
| Eragrostis tef (Zucc.)Trotter | |
| Synonyms | |
Eragrostis abyssinica(Jacq.) Link | |
Teff (Amharic:ጤፍ),Eragrostis tef, also known asWilliams lovegrass[1] andannual bunch grass,[2] is anannual species oflovegrass native toEthiopia, where it originated in theEthiopian Highlands. It has been cultivated for its edible seeds, also called teff, since at least 1000 BCE and possibly as long ago as 4000 BCE. It is one of Ethiopia's most important staple crops. As a modern crop, it is low-yielding and susceptible tolodging; thetef shoot fly is a major pest.
Eragrostis tef is a self pollinatedtetraploid[3] annualcereal grass.[4] Teff is aC4 plant,[3] which allows it to more efficiently fix carbon in drought and high temperatures, and is an intermediate between a tropical and temperate grass.[5] The name teff is thought to originate from theAmharic wordጠፍፋteffa, which means "lost".[4][6] This probably refers to its tiny seeds, which have a diameter smaller than 1 mm (0.04 in).[6] Teff is a fine-stemmed, tufted grass with large crowns and manytillers. Its roots are shallow, but develop a massive fibrous rooting system.[6] The plant height varies depending on the cultivation variety and the environmental conditions.[5]
Teff originated in theEthiopian Highlands.[7][8][9] It is mainly cultivated inEthiopia andEritrea.[7] It is one of the most important staple crops in these two countries, where it is used to makeinjera. In 2016, Ethiopia grew more than 90 percent of the world's teff.[10] It is marginally cultivated in India, Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and the US, particularly inIdaho,California,Texas, andNevada.[11][10][12] Because of its very small seeds, a handful is enough to sow a large area. This makes teff particularly suited to aseminomadic lifestyle.[7]
Teff is adaptable and can grow in various environments, at altitudes ranging from sea level to 3,200 metres (10,500 ft).[13] However, it does not tolerate frost. Highest yields are obtained when teff is grown between 1,800 to 2,100 m (5,900 to 6,900 ft), with an annual rainfall of 450 to 550 mm (18 to 22 in), and daily temperatures range from 15 to 27 °C (59 to 81 °F). Yields decrease when annual rainfall falls below 250 mm and when the average temperature during pollination exceeds 22 °C.[14] Despite its superficial root system, teff is quite drought-resistant thanks to its ability to regenerate rapidly after a moderate water stress and to produce fruits in a short time span. It is daylight-sensitive and flowers best with 12 hours of daylight. Teff is usually cultivated on pH-neutral soils, but can tolerate acid soil pH below 5. Teff has aC4photosynthesis mechanism.[15]
As with many ancient crops, teff is quite adaptable;[5] in particular, it can be cultivated both in dry environments and in wet conditions on marginal soils.[6]
Teff is one of the most important cereals in Ethiopia and Eritrea.[7] It is grown for its edible seeds and also for its straw to feed cattle.[6] The seeds are very small, about a millimeter in length, and a thousand grains weigh approximately 0.3 g (1⁄128 oz).[16] They can have a color from a white to a deep reddish brown.[5] Teff is similar tomillet andquinoa in cooking, but theseed is much smaller and cooks faster, using less fuel.[12]
Teff is believed to have originated in Ethiopia between 4000 BCE and 1000 BCE. Genetic evidence points toE. pilosa as the most likely wild ancestor.[17] A 19th-century identification of teff seeds from an ancient Egyptian site is now considered doubtful; the seeds in question (no longer available for study) are more likely ofE. aegyptiaca, a common wild grass inEgypt.[18]
Teff is the most important commodity produced and consumed in Ethiopia where the flat pancake-likeinjera provides a livelihood for around 6.5 million small farmers in the country.[19] In 2006, the Ethiopian government outlawed the export of raw teff, fearing export-driven domestic shortages like those suffered by South American countries after the explosion ofquinoa consumption in Europe and the US.[19][20] Processed teff, namely injera, could still be exported and was mainly bought by the Ethiopian and Eritreandiaspora living in northern Europe, the Middle East and North America.[19] After a few years, fears of a domestic shortage of teff in the scenario of an international market opening decreased.[20] Teff yields had been increasing by 40 to 50% over the five previous years while prices had remained stable in Ethiopia.[19][20] This led the government to partially lift the export ban in 2015. To ensure that the domestic production would not be minimized, the export licenses have only been granted to 48 commercial farmers which had not cultivated the plant before.[20] Lack ofmechanization is a barrier to potential increases in teff exports.[20] Yet the increasing demand, rising by 7–10% per year, and the subsequent increase in exports is encouraging the country to speed up the modernization of agriculture and is also boosting research.[20] Because of its potential as an economic success, a few other countries, including the US and some European countries, are already cultivating teff and selling it on domestic markets.[20]
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The cultivation of teff is labor-intensive and the small size of its seeds makes it difficult to handle and transport without loss.[6] In Ethiopia, teff is mostly produced during the main rain season, between July and November. It is known as an "emergency crop" because it is planted late in the season, when the temperatures are warmer, and most other crops have already been planted.[15] Teff germination generally occurs 3–12 days after sowing. Optimal germination temperatures range from 15 to 35 °C; below 10 °C, germination almost does not occur.[15] Teff is traditionally sown or broadcast by hand, on firm, humid soil.[21] Usual sowing density ranges from 15 to 20 kg/ha, though farmers can sow up to 50 kg/ha, because the seeds are hard to spread equally and a higher sowing density helps to reduce weed competition at the early stage.[15] Seeds are either left at the soil surface or slightly covered by a thin layer of soil, but must not be planted at a depth greater than 1 cm. The field can be subsequently rolled.[22]
Recommendedfertilization doses are 25–60 kg/ha for N, and 10–18 kg/ha for P. Teff responds more tonitrogen than tophosphorus; thus, high nitrogen inputs increase the biomass production and size of the plants, thereby increasing lodging.[23] To avoid this, farmers can decrease nitrogen input, cultivate teff after alegume crop or adjust sowing time so that the rains have stopped when the crop reaches heading stage. In Ethiopia, teff is commonly used in crop rotations with othercereals andlegumes.[22]
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Teff is harvested 2–6 months after sowing, when the vegetative parts start to turn yellow. If teff is harvested past its maturation, seeds will fall off, especially in windy or rainy weather conditions.[15] In Ethiopia, harvest lasts from November to January; harvest is usually done manually, with sickles. Farmers cut the plants at the soil surface, pile them up in the field and transport them to thethreshing area.[24] Teff is traditionally threshed by using animals walking on the harvest. Alternatively, some farmers rent threshing machines used for other cereals.[21] The seeds are easy to store, as they are resistant to most pests during storage. Teff seeds can stay viable several years if direct contact with humidity and sun is avoided.[5] Average yields in Ethiopia reach around twotonnes per ha. One single inflorescence can produce up to 1000 seeds, and one plant up to 10,000.[25] Moreover, teff offers some promising opportunities forbreeding programs: the first draft of theEragrostis tef genome was published in 2014 and research institutes have started selecting for more resistant varieties.[26] In 1996, theUS National Research Council characterized teff as having the "potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare."[7]
The major challenges in teff production are its low yield and high susceptibility tolodging. Efforts to conventionally breed teff towards higher yields started in the 1950s and led to an average annual increase in yield of 0.8%.[27]
High-yielding varieties, such asQuencho, were widely adopted by farmers in Ethiopia.[27]Sequencing of the teffgenome improved breeding,[28] and anethyl methanesulphonate (EMS)-mutagenized population was then used to breed the first semi-dwarf lodging-tolerant teff line, calledkegne.[29] In 2015, researchers tested 28 new teff varieties and identified three promising lines that generated yields of up to 4.7 tonnes per ha.[30]
The "Teff Improvement Project" marked a milestone by releasing the first teff varietyTesfa to the Ethiopian markets in March 2017.[31] Areas of further development include: "(i) improving productivity of teff; (ii) overcoming the lodging malady; (iii) developing climate-smart and appropriate crop andsoil management options; (iv) developing tolerance to abiotic stresses such asdrought and soil acidity; (v) developing suitable pre- and post-harvestmechanization technologies suitable forsmallholderfarmers as well as commercial farms; (vi)food processing andnutrition aspects with special attention to the development of different food recipes and value-added products; (vii) developingcrop protection measures against diseases, insect pests and weeds; and (viii) improving or strengtheningsocio-economics and agricultural extension services."[32]
The tef shoot fly (Atherigona hyalinipennis) is a major pest of the crop.[33][34][35]
Other insect pests include:[36]
Teff is a multipurpose crop which has a high importance for the Ethiopian diet and culture.[5][7] In Ethiopia, teff provides two-thirds of the dailyprotein intake.[37] It is not only important for human nutrition, but also as fodder for livestock, or as building material.[5][37] Teff is the main ingredient to prepareinjera, asourdough-risen flatbread.[38] During meals, it is often eaten with meat or ground pulses.[5] Sometimes it is also eaten asporridge.[5] Moreover, teff can be used to prepare alcoholic drinks, calledarak'e orkatikalla[5] or beer, calledt'ella orfersso.[37] Finally, due to its high mineral content, teff is also mixed withsoybeans,chickpeas or other grains to manufacture baby foods.[5]
Farmers in Ethiopia believe that consumers prefer white teff over darker varieties.[39] As a nutritiousfodder, teff is used to feedruminants in Ethiopia and horses in the US.[40] It is a source of animal feed, especially during the dry season, and it is often preferred over straw from other cereals.[5][37] Teff grass can be used as a construction material when mixed with mud to plaster the walls of local grain storage facilities.[5][37]
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 422 kJ (101 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
19.86 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 2.8 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.65 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3.87 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 74.93 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated usingUS recommendations for adults,[41] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from theNational Academies.[42] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Uncooked teff is 9% water, 73% carbohydrates, 13% protein, and 2% fat. Cooked teff is 75% water, 20%carbohydrates, 4%protein, and less than 1%fat. A100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of cooked teff provides 420 kilojoules (101 kilocalories) offood energy, is a rich source ofprotein,dietary fiber, andmanganese, and contains moderate amounts ofthiamin,phosphorus,iron,magnesium, andzinc. The fiber content in teff is also higher than in most other cereals.[43]
Teff isgluten free, and a method has been developed to process teff into a flour with a wider range of baking applications, such as forbread andpasta.[44]
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 1,536 kJ (367 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
73.13 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 8.0 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2.38 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
13.30 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 8.82g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated usingUS recommendations for adults,[41] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from theNational Academies.[42] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Amino-acid | Concentration in raw teff, in g/16gN[44] |
|---|---|
| Lysine | 3.68 |
| Isoleucine | 4.07 |
| Leucine | 8.53 |
| Valine | 5.46 |
| Phenylalaline | 5.69 |
| Tyrosine | 3.84 |
| Tryptophan | 1.30 |
| Threonine | 4.32 |
| Histidine | 3.21 |
| Arginine | 5.15 |
| Methionine | 4.06 |
| Cystine | 2.50 |
| Asparagine + Aspartic Acid | 6.4 |
| Proline | 8.2 |
| Serine | 4.1 |
| Glutamine + Glutamic Acid | 21.8 |
| Glycine | 3.1 |
| Alanine | 10.1 |
In 2003, a Dutch company, Health and Performance Food International (HPFI), paired with the Ethiopian Institute of Biodiversity Conservation to introduce teff to European markets. The agreement was for Ethiopia to provide HPFI with a dozen strains of teff to market globally, and the two entities would split the proceeds.[45] HPFI's CEO, Jans Roosjen, took out two patents on teff in 2003 and 2007, claiming that his way of milling and storing the flour was unique. HPFI went bankrupt in 2009, allowing Roosjen to utilize those patents and the marketing rights for the grain while being freed from the original agreement with Ethiopia.[45] Ethiopia only received 4,000 euros over five years of collaboration.[46] Roosjen sued a Dutch bakery company, Bakels, for patent infringement through selling teff baked goods. The Dutch patent office declared the patent void, stating that the methods used to bake and mix flours were "general professional knowledge".[46] Teff is inherent to Ethiopia's national culture and identity.[47] The government of Ethiopia has expressed intent to hold Roosjen accountable under patent law, and to regain ownership over international markets of its most important food.[48]
It is known by other names, such as Eragrostis tef, Williams lovegrass, annual bunch grass and taf.
English: Teff, Lovegrass, Annual Bunch Grass, Warm Season Annual Bunch Grass
Teff is a C4 self-pollinated tetraploid cereal plant with a chromosome number of 2n=4x=20.
But most of the teff consumed in North America, Europe and other parts of the world is grown in places like Idaho, the Netherlands, Australia and India; More than 90 percent of the world's teff is grown in Ethiopia.
Teff […] is also being grown in Nevada, California and Texas, Miller says; Wayne Carlson, who operates the Teff Company in Idaho's Snake River Valley, is considered the father of American teff.
Today, the resilient crop is also grown in countries such as the US, Spain, Germany and Australia; It also cooks quickly, so requires less fuel to prepare.
Teff yields have increased by 50% in the last five years, […] and prices have remained steady, prompting the government to partially lift the export ban.
