Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is thestone tool, used duringprehistory, followed by thecontrol of fire—which in turn contributed to thegrowth of thehuman brain and the development oflanguage during theIce Age, according to thecooking hypothesis.[5] The invention of thewheel in theBronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including theprinting press, telephone, and theInternet, have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in theknowledge economy.
Technology is a term dating back to theearly 17th century that meant 'systematic treatment' (fromGreekΤεχνολογία, from theGreek:τέχνη,romanized: tékhnē,lit. 'craft, art' and-λογία (-logíā), 'study, knowledge').[7][8] It is predated in use by theAncient Greek wordτέχνη (tékhnē), used to mean 'knowledge of how to make things', which encompassed activities like architecture.[9]
Starting in the 19th century, continental Europeans started using the termsTechnik (German) ortechnique (French) to refer to a 'way of doing', which included all technical arts, such as dancing, navigation, or printing, whether or not they required tools or instruments.[10] At the time,Technologie (German and French) referred either to the academic discipline studying the "methods of arts and crafts", or to the political discipline "intended to legislate on the functions of the arts and crafts."[11] The distinction betweenTechnik andTechnologie is absent in English, and so both were translated astechnology. The term was previously uncommon in English and mostly referred to the academic discipline, as in theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.[12]
In the 20th century, as a result ofscientific progress and theSecond Industrial Revolution,technology stopped being considered a distinct academic discipline and took on the meaning: the systemic use of knowledge to practical ends.[13]
Tools were initially developed byhominids through observation andtrial and error.[14] Around 2Mya (million years ago), they learned to make the first stone tools by hammering flakes off a pebble, forming a sharphand axe.[15] This practice was refined 75 kya (thousand years ago) intopressure flaking, enabling much finer work.[16]
Thediscovery of fire was described byCharles Darwin as "possibly the greatest ever made by man".[17] Archaeological, dietary, and social evidence point to "continuous [human] fire-use" at least 1.5 Mya.[18] Fire, fueled with wood andcharcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.[19] Thecooking hypothesis proposes that the ability to cook promoted an increase in hominidbrain size, though some researchers find the evidence inconclusive.[20] Archaeological evidence ofhearths was dated to 790 kya; researchers believe this is likely to have intensified humansocialization and may have contributed to the emergence oflanguage.[21][22]
Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era include clothing and shelter.[23] No consensus exists on the approximate time of adoption of either technology, but archaeologists have found archaeological evidence of clothing 90-120 kya[24] and shelter 450 kya.[23] As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 kya, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.[25][26] Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began tomigrate out of Africa around 200 kya, initially moving toEurasia.[27][28][29]
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools
TheNeolithic Revolution (orFirst Agricultural Revolution) brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity.[30] The invention of the polishedstone axe was a major advance that allowed large-scaleforest clearance and farming.[31] This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic but was originally used in the precedingMesolithic in some areas such as Ireland.[32] Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition tosedentism allowed for the simultaneous raising of more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried around bynomads. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could participate inhunter-gatherer activities.[33][34]
With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase inlabor specialization.[35] What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such asUruk, and the first civilizations, such asSumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasinglyhierarchical social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war among adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such asirrigation, are all thought to have played a role.[36]
The invention ofwriting led to the spread of cultural knowledge and became the basis for history,libraries, schools, andscientific research.[37]
Continuing improvements led to thefurnace andbellows and provided, for the first time, the ability tosmelt andforge gold, copper, silver, and lead – native metals found in relatively pure form in nature.[38] The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning ofNeolithic times (about 10 kya).[39] Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery ofalloys such asbronze andbrass (about 4,000 BCE). The first use of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1,800 BCE.[40][41]
The wheel was inventedc. 4,000 BCE.Ljubljana Marshes Wheel with axle (oldest wooden wheel yet discovered as of 2024)
After harnessing fire, humans discovered other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is thesailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to around 7,000 BCE.[42] From prehistoric times, Egyptians likely used the power of the annualflooding of the Nile to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and "catch" basins.[43] The ancientSumerians inMesopotamia used a complex system of canals and levees to divert water from theTigris andEuphrates rivers for irrigation.[44]
Archaeologists estimate that the wheel was invented independently and concurrently in Mesopotamia (in present-dayIraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and Central Europe.[45] Time estimates range from 5,500 to 3,000 BCE with most experts putting it closer to 4,000 BCE.[46] The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting wheeled carts date from about 3,500 BCE.[47] More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world as of 2024 was found in theLjubljana Marsh ofSlovenia; Austrian experts have established that the wheel is between 5,100 and 5,350 years old.[48]
The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war. It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads. The ancient Sumerians used apotter's wheel and may have invented it.[49] A stone pottery wheel found in the city-state ofUr dates to around 3,429 BCE,[50] and even older fragments of wheel-thrown pottery have been found in the same area.[50] Fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled earlymass production of pottery, but it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (throughwater wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. The first two-wheeled carts were derived fromtravois[51] and were first used in Mesopotamia andIran in around 3,000 BCE.[51]
The oldest known constructed roadways are the stone-paved streets of the city-state of Ur, dating toc. 4,000 BCE,[52] and timber roads leading through the swamps ofGlastonbury, England, dating to around the same period.[52] The first long-distance road, which came into use around 3,500 BCE,[52] spanned 2,400 km from thePersian Gulf to theMediterranean Sea,[52] but was not paved and was only partially maintained.[52] In around 2,000 BCE, theMinoans on the Greek island ofCrete built a 50 km road leading from the palace ofGortyn on the south side of the island, through the mountains, to the palace ofKnossos on the north side of the island.[52] Unlike the earlier road, the Minoan road was completely paved.[52]
Ancient Minoan private homes hadrunning water.[54] A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.[54][55] Several Minoan private homes also had toilets, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain.[54] The ancient Romans had many public flush toilets,[55] which emptied into an extensivesewage system.[55] The primary sewer in Rome was theCloaca Maxima;[55] construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.[55]
The ancient Romans also had a complex system ofaqueducts,[53] which were used to transport water across long distances.[53] The firstRoman aqueduct was built in 312 BCE.[53] The eleventh and final ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE.[53] Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 km,[53] but less than 70 km of this was above ground and supported by arches.[53]
TheRenaissance era produced many innovations, including the introduction of themovable typeprinting press to Europe, which facilitated the communication of knowledge. Technology became increasingly influenced by science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement.[58]
Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the discovery ofsteam power set off theIndustrial Revolution, which saw wide-ranging technological discoveries, particularly in the areas ofagriculture, manufacturing, mining,metallurgy, and transport, and the widespread application of thefactory system.[59] This was followed a century later by theSecond Industrial Revolution which led to rapid scientific discovery, standardization, and mass production. New technologies were developed, includingsewage systems, electricity,light bulbs,electric motors, railroads,automobiles, and airplanes. These technological advances led to significant developments in medicine,chemistry,physics, and engineering.[60] They were accompanied by consequential social change, with the introduction of skyscrapers accompanied by rapid urbanization.[61] Communication improved with the invention of thetelegraph, the telephone, the radio, and television.[62]
Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain more modern technologies, and entireindustries have arisen to develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training.[64] Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have developed to support them, including engineering, medicine, andcomputer science; and other fields have become more complex, such as construction, transportation, and architecture.
Technological change is the largest cause of long-term economic growth.[65][66] Throughout human history, energy production was the main constraint oneconomic development, and new technologies allowed humans to significantly increase the amount of available energy. First came fire, which made edible a wider variety of foods, and made it less physically demanding to digest them. Fire also enabledsmelting, and the use oftin, copper, and iron tools, used for hunting ortradesmanship. Then came the agricultural revolution: humans no longer needed tohunt or gather to survive, and began to settle in towns and cities, forming more complex societies, withmilitaries and more organized forms of religion.[67]
Technologies have contributed to human welfare through increased prosperity, improved comfort and quality of life, andmedical progress, but they can also disrupt existing social hierarchies, cause pollution, and harm individuals or groups.
Recent years have brought about a rise in social media's cultural prominence, with potential repercussions on democracy, and economic and social life. Early on, the internet was seen as a "liberation technology" that would democratize knowledge, improve access to education, and promote democracy. Modern research has turned to investigate the internet's downsides, including disinformation, polarization, hate speech, and propaganda.[68]
Since the 1970s, technology's impact on the environment has beencriticized, leading to a surge in investment insolar,wind, and other forms ofclean energy.
Social
Jobs
Since the invention of the wheel, technologies have helped increase humans' economic output. Past automation has both substituted and complemented labor; machines replaced humans at some lower-paying jobs (for example in agriculture), but this was compensated by the creation of new, higher-paying jobs.[69] Studies have found that computers did not create significant nettechnological unemployment.[70] Due toartificial intelligence being far more capable than computers, and still being in its infancy, it is not known whether it will follow the same trend; the question has been debated at length among economists and policymakers. A 2017 survey found no clear consensus among economists on whether AI would increase long-term unemployment.[71] According to theWorld Economic Forum's "The Future of Jobs Report 2020", AI is predicted to replace 85 million jobs worldwide, and create 97 million new jobs by 2025.[72][73] From 1990 to 2007, a study in the U.S. byMIT economistDaron Acemoglu showed that an addition of one robot for every 1,000 workers decreased theemployment-to-population ratio by 0.2%, or about 3.3 workers, and lowered wages by 0.42%.[74][75] Concerns about technology replacing human labor however are long-lasting. As US presidentLyndon Johnson said in 1964, "Technology is creating both new opportunities and new obligations for us, opportunity for greater productivity and progress; obligation to be sure that no workingman, no family must pay an unjust price for progress." upon signing the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress bill.[76][77][78][79][80]
Security
With the growing reliance of technology, there have been security and privacy concerns along with it. Billions of people use different online payment methods, such asWeChat Pay,PayPal,Alipay, and much more to help transfer money. Although security measures are placed, some criminals are able to bypass them.[81] In March 2022, North Korea usedBlender.io, amixer which helped them to hide their cryptocurrency exchanges, to launder over $20.5 million in cryptocurrency, fromAxie Infinity, and steal over $600 million worth of cryptocurrency from the game's owner. Because of this, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Blender.io, which marked the first time it has taken action against a mixer, to try to crack down on North Korean hackers.[82][83] The privacy of cryptocurrency has been debated. Although many customers like the privacy of cryptocurrency, many also argue that it needs more transparency and stability.[81]
Environmental
Technology can have both positive and negative effects on the environment.Environmental technology, describes an array of technologies which seek to reverse, mitigate or halt environmental damage to the environment. This can include measures tohalt pollution through environmental regulations, capture and storage of pollution, or using pollutant byproducts in other industries.[84] Other examples of environmental technology includedeforestation and the reversing of deforestation.[85] Emerging technologies in the fields ofclimate engineering may be able to halt or reverse global warming and its environmental impacts,[86] although this remains highly controversial.[87] As technology has advanced, so too has the negative environmental impact, with increased release ofgreenhouse gases, includingmethane,nitrous oxide andcarbon dioxide, into the atmosphere, causing thegreenhouse effect. This continues to gradually heat the earth, causing global warming andclimate change. Measures of technological innovation correlates with a rise in greenhouse gas emissions.[88]
Pollution
Pollution, the presence of contaminants in an environment that causes adverse effects, could have been present as early as theInca Empire. They used alead sulfideflux in thesmelting of ores, along with the use of a wind-drafted claykiln, which released lead into theatmosphere and thesediment of rivers.[89]
Philosophy of technology is a branch of philosophy that studies the "practice of designing and creating artifacts", and the "nature of the things so created."[90] It emerged as a discipline over the past two centuries, and has grown "considerably" since the 1970s.[91] Thehumanities philosophy of technology is concerned with the "meaning of technology for, and its impact on, society and culture".[90]
Initially, technology was seen as an extension of the human organism that replicated or amplified bodily and mental faculties.[92]Marx framed it as a tool used by capitalists to oppress the proletariat, but believed that technology would be a fundamentally liberating force once it was "freed from societal deformations". Second-wave philosophers like Ortega later shifted their focus from economics and politics to "daily life and living in a techno-material culture", arguing that technology could oppress "even the members of the bourgeoisie who were its ostensible masters and possessors." Third-stage philosophers likeDon Ihde andAlbert Borgmann represent a turn toward de-generalization and empiricism, and considered how humans can learn to live with technology.[91][page needed]
Early scholarship on technology was split between two arguments:technological determinism, andsocial construction. Technological determinism is the idea that technologies cause unavoidable social changes.[93]: 95 It usually encompasses a related argument, technological autonomy, which asserts that technological progress follows a natural progression and cannot be prevented.[94] Social constructivists[who?] argue that technologies follow no natural progression, and are shaped by cultural values, laws, politics, and economic incentives. Modern scholarship has shifted towards an analysis ofsociotechnical systems, "assemblages of things, people, practices, and meanings", looking at the value judgments that shape technology.[93][page needed]
Cultural criticNeil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called "technopolies", societies that are dominated by an ideology of technological and scientific progress to the detriment of other cultural practices, values, and world views.[95]Herbert Marcuse andJohn Zerzan suggest that technological society will inevitably deprive us of our freedom and psychological health.[96]
Theethics of technology is an interdisciplinary subfield of ethics that analyzes technology's ethical implications and explores ways to mitigate potential negative impacts of new technologies. There is a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology, from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with technology to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in society and everyday life.[97]
Technology ethics encompasses several key fields:Bioethics looks at ethical issues surrounding biotechnologies and modern medicine, including cloning, human genetic engineering, and stem cell research.Computer ethics focuses on issues related to computing.Cyberethics explores internet-related issues likeintellectual property rights,privacy, andcensorship.Nanoethics examines issues surrounding the alteration of matter at the atomic and molecular level in various disciplines including computer science, engineering, and biology. Andengineering ethics deals with the professional standards of engineers, includingsoftware engineers and their moral responsibilities to the public.[99]
A wide branch of technology ethics is concerned with theethics of artificial intelligence: it includesrobot ethics, which deals with ethical issues involved in the design, construction, use, and treatment of robots,[100] as well asmachine ethics, which is concerned with ensuring the ethical behavior ofartificially intelligent agents.[101] Within the field of AI ethics, significant yet-unsolved research problems includeAI alignment (ensuring that AI behaviors are aligned with their creators' intended goals and interests) and the reduction ofalgorithmic bias. Some researchers have warned against the hypothetical risk of anAI takeover, and have advocated for the use ofAI capability control in addition to AI alignment methods.
Futures studies is the study of social and technological progress. It aims to explore the range of plausible futures and incorporate human values in the development of new technologies.[102]: 54 More generally, futures researchers are interested in improving "the freedom and welfare of humankind".[102]: 73 It relies on a thorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of past and present technological trends, and attempts to rigorously extrapolate them into the future.[102] Science fiction is often used as a source of ideas.[102]: 173 Futures research methodologies includesurvey research, modeling,statistical analysis, andcomputer simulations.[102]: 187
In 2005, futuristRay Kurzweil claimed the next technological revolution would rest upon advances ingenetics,nanotechnology, androbotics, with robotics being the most impactful of the three technologies.[108]Genetic engineering will allow far greater control over human biological nature through a process calleddirected evolution. Some thinkers believe that this may shatter our sense of self, and have urged for renewed public debate exploring the issue more thoroughly;[109] others fear that directed evolution could lead to eugenics or extreme social inequality.Nanotechnology will grant us the ability to manipulate matter "at the molecular and atomic scale",[110] which could allow us to reshape ourselves and our environment in fundamental ways.[111] Nanobots could be used within the human body to destroy cancer cells or form new body parts, blurring the line between biology and technology.[112]Autonomous robots have undergone rapid progress, and are expected to replace humans at many dangerous tasks, includingsearch and rescue,bomb disposal,firefighting, and war.[113]
Estimates on the advent ofartificial general intelligence vary, but half of machine learning experts surveyed in 2018 believe that AI will "accomplish every task better and more cheaply" than humans by 2063, and automate all human jobs by 2140.[114] This expected technological unemployment has led to calls for increased emphasis oncomputer science education and debates aboutuniversal basic income. Political science experts predict that this could lead to a rise in extremism, while others see it as an opportunity to usher in apost-scarcity economy.
The transhumanism movement is founded upon the "continued evolution of human life beyond its current human form" through science and technology, informed by "life-promoting principles and values."[116] The movement gained wider popularity in the early 21st century.[117]
Singularitarians believe that machine superintelligence will "accelerate technological progress" by orders of magnitude and "create even more intelligent entities ever faster", which may lead to a pace of societal and technological change that is "incomprehensible" to us. Thisevent horizon is known as thetechnological singularity.[118]
Major figures of techno-utopianism includeRay Kurzweil andNick Bostrom. Techno-utopianism has attracted both praise and criticism from progressive, religious, and conservative thinkers.[119]
Technology's central role in our lives has drawn concerns and backlash. The backlash against technology is not a uniform movement and encompasses many heterogeneous ideologies.[120]
The earliest known revolt against technology wasLuddism, a pushback against early automation in textile production. Automation had resulted in a need for fewer workers, a process known astechnological unemployment.
Between the 1970s and 1990s, American terroristTed Kaczynski carried out a series of bombings across America and published theUnabomber Manifesto denouncing technology's negative impacts on nature and human freedom. The essay resonated with a large part of the American public.[121] It was partly inspired by Jacques Ellul'sThe Technological Society.[122]
Some subcultures, like theoff-the-grid movement, advocate a withdrawal from technology and a return to nature. Theecovillage movement seeks to reestablish harmony between technology and nature.[123]
Relation to science and engineering
Antoine Lavoisier experimenting with combustion generated by amplified sunlight
Engineering is the process by which technology is developed. It often requires problem-solving under strict constraints.[124] Technological development is "action-oriented", while scientific knowledge is fundamentally explanatory.[125] Polish philosopherHenryk Skolimowski framed it like so: "science concerns itself with whatis, technology with whatis to be."[126]: 375
The direction ofcausality between scientific discovery and technological innovation has been debated by scientists, philosophers and policymakers.[127] Because innovation is often undertaken at the edge of scientific knowledge, most technologies are not derived from scientific knowledge, but instead from engineering, tinkering and chance.[128]: 217–240 For example, in the 1940s and 1950s, when knowledge of turbulent combustion or fluid dynamics was still crude, jet engines were invented through "running the device to destruction, analyzing what broke [...] and repeating the process".[124] Scientific explanations often follow technological developments rather than preceding them.[128]: 217–240 Many discoveries also arose from pure chance, like the discovery ofpenicillin as a result of accidental lab contamination.[129] Since the 1960s, the assumption that government funding ofbasic research would lead to the discovery of marketable technologies has lost credibility.[130][131] Probabilist Nassim Taleb argues that national research programs that implement the notions ofserendipity andconvexity through frequent trial and error are more likely to lead to useful innovations than research that aims to reach specific outcomes.[128][132]
Despite this, modern technology is increasingly reliant on deep, domain-specific scientific knowledge. In 1975, there was an average of one citation of scientific literature in every three patents granted in the U.S.; by 1989, this increased to an average of one citation per patent. The average was skewed upwards by patents related to the pharmaceutical industry, chemistry, and electronics.[133] A 2021 analysis shows that patents that are based on scientific discoveries are on average 26% more valuable than equivalent non-science-based patents.[134]
This adult gorilla uses a branch as awalking stick to gauge the water's depth.
The use of basic technology is also a feature of non-human animal species. Tool use was once considered a defining characteristic of the genusHomo.[135] This view was supplanted after discovering evidence of tool use amongchimpanzees and other primates,[136] dolphins,[137] andcrows.[138][139] For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees using basic foraging tools, pestles, levers, using leaves as sponges, and tree bark or vines as probes to fish termites.[140]West African chimpanzees use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,[141] as docapuchin monkeys ofBoa Vista, Brazil.[142] Tool use is not the only form of animal technology use; for example,beaver dams, built with wooden sticks or large stones, are a technology with "dramatic" impacts on river habitats and ecosystems.[143]
^Skolnikoff, Eugene B. (1993). "The Setting".The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics.Princeton University Press. p. 13.ISBN0-691-08631-1.JSTORj.ctt7rpm1.I find the most useful conceptual definition for this study to be that given by Harvey Brooks, who has defined technology...as 'knowledge of how to fulfill certain human purposes in a specifiable and reproducible way.'
^Salomon 1984, pp. 117–118: "The first pole, that of the naturalisation of a new discipline within the university curriculum, was presented by Christian Wolff in 1728, in Chapter III of the "Preliminary discourse" to hisPhilosophia rationalisis sive Logica: 'Technology is the science of skills and works of skill, or, if one prefers, the science of things made by man's labour, chiefly through the use of his hands.'"
^Salomon 1984, p. 119: "With the industrial revolution and the important part England played in it, the word technology was to lose this meaning as the subject or thrust of a branch of education, as first in English and then in other languages it embodied all technical activity based on the application of science to practical ends."
^Gowlett, J. A. J.; Wrangham, R. W. (1 March 2013). "Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis".Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa.48 (1):5–30.doi:10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754.ISSN0067-270X.S2CID163033909.
^Dunbar, R. I. M.; Gamble, C.; Gowlett, J. A. J., eds. (2014).Lucy to Language: the Benchmark Papers. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-965259-4.OCLC1124046527.
^abShaar, Ron; Matmon, Ari; Horwitz, Liora K.; Ebert, Yael; Chazan, Michael; Arnold, M.; Aumaître, G.; Bourlès, D.; Keddadouche, K. (May 2021). "Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age".Quaternary Science Reviews.259 106907.Bibcode:2021QSRv..25906907S.doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907.
^Coghlan, H. H. (1943). "The Evolution of the Axe from Prehistoric to Roman Times".The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.73 (1/2):27–56.doi:10.2307/2844356.ISSN0307-3114.JSTOR2844356.
^Hall, Harry Reginald Holland (1911)."Ceramics" . InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 05 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 703–760, see page 708.The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.).
^Akanuma, Hideo. "The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey".Anatolian Archaeological Studies.14. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology.
^Potts, D.T. (2012).A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. p. 285.
^Childe, V. Gordon (1928).New Light on the Most Ancient East. p. 110.
^Anthony, David A. (2007).The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 67.ISBN978-0-691-05887-0.
^Deming, D. (2014).Science and Technology in World History, Volume 3: The Black Death, the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution. McFarland.ISBN978-0-7864-9086-8.
^Stearns, P. N. (2020).The Industrial Revolution in World History. Routledge.ISBN978-0-8133-4729-5.
^Albion, Robert G. (1 January 1933). "The Communication Revolution, 1760–1933".Transactions of the Newcomen Society.14 (1):13–25.doi:10.1179/tns.1933.002.ISSN0372-0187.
^Solow, Robert M. (1957). "Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function".The Review of Economics and Statistics.39 (3):312–320.doi:10.2307/1926047.ISSN0034-6535.JSTOR1926047.
^Grainger, Alan; Francisco, Herminia A; Tiraswat, Penporn (July 2003). "The impact of changes in agricultural technology on long-term trends in deforestation".Land Use Policy.20 (3):209–223.Bibcode:2003LUPol..20..209G.doi:10.1016/S0264-8377(03)00009-7.
^EPA (19 January 2017)."Climate Impacts on Ecosystems".Archived from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved5 February 2019.Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change... As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more frequent.
^Union of Concerned Scientists (6 November 2017)."What is Climate Engineering?".www.ucsusa.org.Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved28 October 2024.
^Chaudhry, Imran Sharif; Ali, Sajid; Bhatti, Shaukat Hussain; Anser, Muhammad Khalid; Khan, Ahmad Imran; Nazar, Raima (October 2021). "Dynamic common correlated effects of technological innovations and institutional performance on environmental quality: Evidence from East-Asia and Pacific countries".Environmental Science & Policy.124:313–323.Bibcode:2021ESPol.124..313C.doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2021.07.007.
^Smol, J. P. (2009).Pollution of Lakes and Rivers: a Paleoenvironmental Perspective (2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p. 135.ISBN978-1-4443-0757-3.OCLC476272945.
^abFranssen, M.; Lokhorst, G.-J.; van de Poel, I. (2018)."Philosophy of Technology". In Zalta, E. N. (ed.).The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 ed.).Archived from the original on 11 September 2022. Retrieved11 September 2022.
^Brey, P. (2000). Mitcham, C. (ed.). "Theories of Technology as Extension of Human Faculties".Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Technology. Research in Philosophy and Technology.19.
^Luppicini, R. (2008). "The emerging field of Technoethics". In Luppicini; R. Adell (eds.).Handbook of Research on Technoethics. Hershey: Idea Group Publishing.
^Veruggio, Gianmarco (2011). "The Roboethics Roadmap".EURON Roboethics Atelier. Scuola di Robotica: 2.CiteSeerX10.1.1.466.2810.
^Vannini, Phillip; Jonathan Taggart (2013). "Voluntary simplicity, involuntary complexities, and the pull of remove: The radical ruralities of off-grid lifestyles".Environment and Planning A.45 (2):295–311.Bibcode:2013EnPlA..45..295V.doi:10.1068/a4564.S2CID143970611.
^Guston, David H. (2000).Between Politics and Science: Assuring the Integrity and Productivity of Research. New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-65318-3.
^McGrew, W. C (1992).Chimpanzee Material Culture. Cambridge u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press.ISBN978-0-521-42371-7.
^Boesch, Christophe; Boesch, Hedwige (1984). "Mental map in wild chimpanzees: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking".Primates.25 (2):160–170.doi:10.1007/BF02382388.S2CID24073884.
^Müller, G.; Watling, J. (24 June 2016).The engineering in beaver dams. River Flow 2016: Eighth International Conference on Fluvial Hydraulics. St. Louis: University of Southampton Institutional Research Repository.Archived from the original on 24 September 2022. Retrieved29 September 2022.
^Thomas Michaud (2008). "Science fiction and politics: Cyberpunk science fiction as political philosophy".New Boundaries in Political Science Fiction. By Hassler, Donald M.University of South Carolina Press. pp. 65–77 [75–76].ISBN978-1-57003-736-8.
Dietrich, Oliver; Notroff, Jens; Schmidt, Klaus (2017). "Feasting, Social Complexity, and the Emergence of the Early Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia: A View from Göbekli Tepe".Feast, Famine or Fighting?. Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation. Vol. 8. pp. 91–132.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48402-0_5.ISBN978-3-319-48401-3.
Cohen, Benjamin; Ottinger, Gwen (2011). "Introduction: Environmental Justice and the Transformation of Science and Engineering". In Ottinger, Gwen; Cohen, Benjamin (eds.).Technoscience and Environmental Justice: Expert Cultures in a Grassroots Movement.MIT Press. pp. 1–18.ISBN978-0-262-01579-0.
Heidegger, Martin (1977). "The Question Concerning Technology".The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays. Translated by Lovitt, W. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 25–26.
Ottinger, Gwen (2011). "Rupturing Engineering Education: Opportunities for Transforming Expert Identities Through Community-Based Projects". In Ottinger, Gwen; Cohen, Benjamin (eds.).Technoscience and Environmental Justice: Expert Cultures in a Grassroots Movement.MIT Press. pp. 229–248.ISBN978-0-262-01579-0.
Rhodes, R. (2000).Visions of Technology: A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems, and the Human World. Simon & Schuster.ISBN0-684-86311-1.
Shaar, Ron; Matmon, Ari; Horwitz, Liora K.; Ebert, Yael; Chazan, Michael; Arnold, M.; Aumaître, G.; Bourlès, D.; Keddadouche, K. (May 2021). "Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age".Quaternary Science Reviews.259 106907.Bibcode:2021QSRv..25906907S.doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907.
Gribbin, John, "Alone in the Milky Way: Why we are probably the only intelligent life in the galaxy",Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 94–99. "Is life likely to exist elsewhere in the [Milky Way] galaxy? Almost certainly yes, given the speed with which it appeared on Earth. Is another technological civilization likely to exist today? Almost certainly no, given the chain of circumstances that led to our existence. These considerations suggest that we are unique not just on our planet but in the whole Milky Way. And if our planet is so special, it becomes all the more important to preserve this unique world for ourselves, our descendants and the many creatures that call Earth home." (p. 99.)
.jpg)
