An early credible record of tea drinking dates to the third century AD, in a medical text written by Chinese physicianHua Tuo.[12] It was popularised as a recreational drink during the ChineseTang dynasty, and tea drinking subsequently spread to other East Asian countries.Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century.[13] During the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among theEnglish, who started to plant tea on a large scale inBritish India.
The termherbal tea refers to drinks not made fromCamellia sinensis. They are the infusions of fruit, leaves, orother plant parts, such assteeps ofrosehip,chamomile, orrooibos. These may be calledtisanes orherbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant.
Theetymology of the various words fortea reflects the history of transmission of tea drinking culture and trade from China to countries around the world.[14] Nearly all of the words for tea worldwide fall into three broad groups:te,cha andchai, present in English astea,cha orchar, andchai. The earliest of the three to enter English ischa, which came in the 1590s via the Portuguese, who traded inMacao and picked up theCantonese pronunciation of the word.[15][16] The more commontea form arrived in the 17th century via the Dutch, who acquired it either indirectly from the Malayteh, or directly from thetê pronunciation inMin Chinese.[15] The third formchai (meaning "spiced tea") originated from a northern Chinese pronunciation ofcha, which travelled overland to Central Asia andPersia where it picked up a Persian endingyi. The Chinese word for tea itself was likely ultimately derived from the non-Sinitic languages of the botanical homeland of the tea plant in southwest China (orBurma), possibly from an archaicAustro-Asiatic root word *la, meaning "leaf".[17]
Tea plants are native to East Asia and the probable center of origin of tea is near the source of theIrrawaddy River from where it spread out fan-wise into southeast China, Indo-China andAssam. Thus, the natural home of the tea plant is considered to be within the comparatively small fan-shaped area betweenNagaland,Manipur andMizoram along theBurma frontier in the west, throughChina as far as theZhejiang Province in the east, and from this line generally south through the hills to Burma andThailand toVietnam. The west–east axis indicated above is about 2,400 km long extending from longitude 95°-120°E. The north–south axis covers about 1,920 km, starting from the northern part of Burma, latitude 29°N passing throughYunnan,Tongkin, Thailand,Laos and on to Annan, reaching latitude 11°N.[18]
Chinese (small-leaf) type tea (C. sinensis var.sinensis) may have originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives. However, since there are no known wild populations of this tea, its origin is speculative.[19][20]
Given their genetic differences forming distinctclades, Chinese Assam-type tea (C. sinensis var.assamica) may have two different parentages – one being found in southernYunnan (Xishuangbanna,Pu'er City) and the other in western Yunnan (Lincang,Baoshan). Many types of Southern Yunnan Assam tea have been hybridized with the closely related speciesCamellia taliensis. Unlike Southern Yunnan Assam tea, Western Yunnan Assam tea shares many genetic similarities with Indian Assam-type tea (alsoC. sinensis var.assamica). Thus, Western Yunnan Assam tea and Indian Assam tea both may have originated from the same parent plant in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet. However, as the Indian Assam tea shares nohaplotypes with Western Yunnan Assam tea, Indian Assam tea is likely to have originated from an independent domestication. Some Indian Assam tea appears to have hybridized with the speciesCamellia pubicosta.[19][20]
Assuming a generation of 12 years, Chinese small-leaf tea is estimated to have diverged from Assam tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese Assam tea and Indian Assam tea diverged 2,800 years ago. The divergence of Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam tea would correspond to the lastglacial maximum.[19][20]
Early tea drinking
A 19th-century Japanese painting depictingShennong: Chinese legends credit Shennong with the invention of tea.[21]
People in ancient East Asia ate tea for centuries, perhaps evenmillennia, before ever consuming it as a beverage. They would nibble on the leaves raw, add them tosoups orgreens, orferment them and chew them asareca nut is chewed.[22]
Tea drinking may have begun in the region ofYunnan, where it was used for medicinal purposes. It is believed that inSichuan, "people began to boil tea leaves for consumption into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction."[5]
Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to the mythicalShennong (in central and northern China) in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China (Sichuan/Yunnan area).[21] The earliest written records of tea come from China. The wordtú荼 appears in theShijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of "bitter vegetable" (苦菜), and it is possible that it referred to many different plants such assow thistle,chicory, orsmartweed,[23] as well as tea.[24] In theChronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that theBa people in Sichuan presentedtu to theZhou king. TheQin later conquered the state ofBa and its neighbourShu, and according to the 17th century scholarGu Yanwu who wrote inRi Zhi Lu (日知錄): "It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea."[2] Another possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by theQin dynasty general Liu Kun who requested that some "real tea" to be sent to him.[25]
The earliest known physical evidence[26] of tea was discovered in 2016 in the mausoleum ofEmperor Jing of Han inXi'an, indicating that tea from the genusCamellia was drunk byHan dynasty emperors as early as the second century BC.[27] The Han dynasty work "The Contract for a Youth", written byWang Bao in 59 BC,[28] contains the first known reference to boiling tea. Among the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, the contract states that "he shall boil tea and fill the utensils" and "he shall buy tea at Wuyang".[2] The first record of tea cultivation is dated to this period, during which tea was cultivated on Meng Mountain (蒙山) nearChengdu.[29] Another early credible record of tea drinking dates to the 3rd century AD, in a medical text by the Chinese physicianHua Tuo, who stated, "to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one think better."[30] However, before theTang dynasty, tea-drinking was primarily a southern Chinese practice centered inJiankang.[31] Tea was disdained by theNorthern dynasties aristocrats, who describe it as inferior to yogurt.[32][33] It became widely popular during the Tang dynasty, when it spread to Korea,Japan, and Vietnam.The Classic of Tea, a treatise on tea and its preparations, was written by the 8th century Chinese writer,Lu Yu. He was known to have influenced tea drinking on a large part in China.[34]
Developments
Tea with ingredients, China
Through the centuries, a variety of techniques for processing tea, and a number of different forms of tea, were developed. During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake form,[35] while in theSong dynasty, loose-leaf tea was developed and became popular. During theYuan andMing dynasties, unoxidized tea leaves were first stirred in a hot dry pan, then rolled and air-dried, a process that stops theoxidation process that would have turned the leaves dark, thereby allowing tea to remain green. In the 15th century,oolong tea, in which the leaves are allowed to partially oxidize before being heated in the pan, was developed.[31] Western tastes, however, favoured the fully oxidizedblack tea, and the leaves were allowed to oxidize further.Yellow tea was an accidental discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently careless practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, which yielded a different flavour.[36]
Tea was first introduced to Western priests and merchants in China during the 16th century, at which time it was termedchá.[13] The earliest European reference to tea, written aschiai, came fromDelle navigationi e viaggi written by VenetianGiambattista Ramusio in 1545.[37] The first recorded shipment of tea by a European nation was in 1607 when the Dutch East India Company moved a cargo of tea fromMacao to Java, then two years later, the Dutch bought the first assignment of tea which was fromHirado in Japan to be shipped to Europe.[38] Tea became a fashionable drink inThe Hague in the Netherlands, and the Dutch introduced the drink toGermany,France, and across the Atlantic toNew Amsterdam (New York).[39]
In 1567, Russian people came in contact with tea when theCossackAtamans Petrov and Yalyshev visited China.[40] The Mongolian Khan donated toTsarMichael I fourpoods (65–70 kg) of tea in 1638.[41] According toJeremiah Curtin,[42] it was possibly in 1636[43] that Vassili Starkov was sent as envoy to theAltyn Khan. He was given 250 pounds of tea as a gift to the tsar. Starkov at first refused, seeing no use for a load of dead leaves, but the Khan insisted. Thus was tea introduced to Russia. In 1679, Russia concluded a treaty on regular tea supplies from China viacamel caravan in exchange for furs. It is today considered thede facto national beverage.
TheRaymond, Hugh Mckay Commander. The first vessel direct from China toHull on her arrival on 14 October 1843 with a cargo of tea.
The first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran anEast India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting "the best sort of chaw" in 1615.Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea inFujian in 1637, wrote, "chaa – only water with a kind of herb boyled in it".[44][45] Tea was sold in a coffee house in London in 1657,Samuel Pepys tasted tea in 1660, andCatherine of Braganza took the tea-drinking habit to the English court when she marriedCharles II in 1662. Tea, however, was not widely consumed in the British Isles until the 18th century and remained expensive until the latter part of that period. English drinkers preferred to add sugar and milk to black tea, and black tea overtook green tea in popularity in the 1720s.[46] Tea smuggling during the 18th century led to the general public being able to afford and consume tea. The British government removed the tax on tea, thereby eliminating the smuggling trade, by 1785.[47] In Britain and Ireland, tea was initially consumed as a luxury item on special occasions, such as religious festivals, wakes, and domestic work gatherings. The price of tea in Europe fell steadily during the 19th century, especially after Indian tea began to arrive in large quantities; by the late 19th century tea had become an everyday beverage for all levels of society.[48] The popularity of tea played a role in historical events – theTea Act of 1773 provoked theBoston Tea Party that escalated into theAmerican Revolution. The need to address the issue of British trade deficit because of the trade in tea resulted in theOpium Wars. The QingKangxi Emperor had banned foreign products from being sold in China, decreeing in 1685 that all goods bought from China must be paid for in silver coin or bullion.[49] Traders from other nations then sought to find another product, in this case opium, to sell to China to earn back the silver they were required to pay for tea and other commodities. The subsequent attempts by the Chinese Government to curtail the trade in opium led to war.[50]
World map of tea exporters and importers, 1907
Chinese small-leaf-type tea was introduced into India in 1836 by the British in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on tea.[51] In 1841,Archibald Campbell brought seeds ofChinese tea from theKumaun region and experimented with planting tea inDarjeeling. The Alubaritea garden was opened in 1856, andDarjeeling tea began to be produced.[52] In 1848,Robert Fortune was sent by theEast India Company on a mission to China to bring the tea plant back to Great Britain. He began his journey in high secrecy as his mission occurred in the lull between theFirst Opium War and theSecond Opium War.[53] The Chinese tea plants he brought back were introduced to theHimalayas, though most did not survive. The British had discovered that a different variety of tea was endemic toAssam and the northeast region of India, which was then hybridized with Chinese small-leaf-type tea. Using Chinese planting and cultivation techniques, the British colonial government established a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate it for export.[51] Tea was originally consumed only byAnglo-Indians; however, it became widely popular in India in the 1950s because of a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board.[51] The British introduced tea industry to Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) in 1867.[54]
Physically speaking, tea has properties of both asolution and asuspension. It is a solution of the water-soluble compounds extracted from the tea leaves, such as the polyphenols and amino acids. Tea infusions are among most consumed beverages globally.[55]
Caffeine makes up about 3% of tea's dry weight, which translates to between 30 and 90 milligrams per 250-millilitre (8+1⁄2 US fl oz) cup depending on the type, brand,[56] and brewing method.[57] A study found that the caffeine content of one gram of black tea ranged from 22 to 28 mg, while the caffeine content of one gram of green tea ranged from 11 to 20 mg, reflecting a significant difference.[58] Tea contains small amounts oftheobromine andtheophylline, which arexanthines andstimulants, similar to caffeine.[59]
Fresh tea leaves in various stages of growth
Theastringency in tea can be attributed to the presence ofpolyphenols. These are the most abundant compounds in tea leaves, making up 30–40% of their composition.[60] Polyphenols in tea includeflavonoids,epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and othercatechins.[61][62] Although there has been preliminaryclinical research on whether green or black teas may protect against various human diseases, there is no evidence that tea polyphenols have any effect on health or lowering disease risk.[63][64]
Although health benefits have been assumed throughout the history ofCamellia sinensis's consumption, there is no high-quality evidence showing that tea consumption gives significant benefits other than possibly increasing alertness, an effect caused bycaffeine in the tea leaves.[65][66] Inclinical research conducted in the early 21st century, it was found there is no scientific evidence to indicate that consuming tea affects any disease or improves health.[65]
Black and green teas contain noessential nutrients in significant amounts, with the exception of thedietary mineralmanganese, at 0.5 mg per cup or 26% of theReference Daily Intake (RDI).[67]Fluoride is sometimes present in tea; certain types of "brick tea", made from old leaves and stems, have the highest levels, enough to pose a health risk if much tea is drunk, which has been attributed to high levels of fluoride in soils, acidic soils, and long brewing.[68]
Cultivation and harvesting
Tea harvesting in Zhejiang province, China, May 1987Tea plantation workers inSri Lanka
Tea plants are propagated from seed and cuttings; about 4 to 12 years are needed for a plant to bear seed and about three years before a new plant is ready for harvesting.[69] In addition to azone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 127 cm (50 in) of rainfall per year and preferacidic soils.[77] Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above sea level. Though at these heights the plants grow more slowly, they acquire a better flavour.[78]
Two principal varieties are used:Camellia sinensis var.sinensis, which is used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas, andC. sinensis var.assamica, used inPu-erh and most Indian teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, manystrains and modern clonal varieties are known. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants, with three primary classifications being:[79]Assam type, characterised by the largest leaves; China type, characterised by the smallest leaves; and Cambodian type, characterised by leaves of intermediate size. The Cambodian-type tea (C. assamica subsp.lasiocaly) was originally considered a type of Assam tea. However, later genetic work showed that it is a hybrid between Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam-type tea.[80] Darjeeling tea appears to be a hybrid between Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam-type large-leaf tea.[20]
A tea plant will grow into a tree of up to 16 m (52 ft) if left undisturbed,[69] but cultivated plants are generally pruned to waist height for ease of plucking. The short plants bear more new shoots which provide new and tender leaves and increase the quality of the tea.[81] Only the top 2.5–5 centimetres (1–2 in) of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called 'flushes'.[82] A plant will grow a new flush every 7 to 15 days during the growing season. Leaves that are slow in development tend to produce better-flavoured teas.[69] Several teas are available from specified flushes; for example, Darjeeling tea is available as first flush (at a premium price), second flush, monsoon and autumn. Assam second flush or "tippy" tea is considered superior to first flush, because of the gold tips that appear on the leaves.
Pests that can afflict tea plants include mosquito bugs, genusHelopeltis, which aretrue bugs and not to be confused withdipterous insects of familyCulicidae ('mosquitos'). Mosquito bugs can damage leaves both by sucking plant materials, and by the laying of eggs (oviposition) within the plant. Spraying with syntheticinsecticides may be deemed appropriate.[83] Other pests are Lepidopteran leaf feeders and varioustea diseases.
Tea is mainly grown in Asia and Africa, with smaller areas in South America and around the Black and Caspian Seas. The four biggest tea-producing countries are China, India, Kenya and Sri Lanka, together representing 81% of world tea production. Smaller hubs of production include such places asSão Miguel Island, Azores, in Portugal, andGuria, in Georgia. In 2022, global production of tea was 29.8 milliontonnes, led by China with 49% and India with 20% of the world total.Kenya,Sri Lanka, andTurkey were secondary producers.[85]
Storage
Storage conditions determine theshelf life of tea; that of black teas is greater than that of green teas. Some, such as flower teas, may last only a month or so. Others, such as pu-erh, improve with age. To remain fresh and prevent mold, tea needs to be stored away from heat, light, air, and moisture. Tea must be kept at room temperature in an air-tight container. Black tea in a bag within a sealed opaque canister may keep for two years. Green tea deteriorates more rapidly, usually in less than a year. Tightly rolledgunpowder tea leaves keep longer than the more open-leafedChun Mee tea.
Storage life for all teas can be extended by usingdesiccant or oxygen-absorbing packets, vacuum sealing, or refrigeration in air-tight containers (except green tea, where discrete use of refrigeration or freezing is recommended and temperature variation kept to a minimum).[86]
Black: wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized (called紅茶 [hóngchá], "red tea" in Chinese and other East Asian tea culture);
Post-fermented (Dark): green tea that has been allowed to ferment/compost (calledPu'er if from the Yunnan district of South-Western China or黑茶 [hēichá] "black tea" inChinese tea culture).
After picking, the leaves ofC. sinensis soon begin towilt andoxidize unless immediately dried. Anenzymatic oxidation process triggered by the plant's intracellularenzymes causes the leaves to turn progressively darker as theirchlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This darkening is stopped at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes responsible. In the production of black teas, halting by heating is carried out simultaneously with drying. Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, growth of undesired molds and bacteria may make tea unfit for consumption.
After basic processing, teas may be altered through additional processing steps before being sold[88] and is often consumed with additions to the basic tea leaf and water added during preparation or drinking. Examples of additional processing steps that occur before tea is sold are blending, flavouring, scenting, and decaffeination of teas. Examples of additions added at the point of consumption include milk, sugar and lemon.
Tea blending is the combination of different teas together to achieve the final product. Such teas may combine others from the same cultivation area or several different ones. The aim is to obtain consistency, better taste, higher price, or some combination of the three.
Flavoured and scented teas are enhancements of the base tea. This can be accomplished through directly adding flavouring agents, such asginger,cloves,mint leaves,cardamom,bergamot (found inEarl Grey),vanilla, andspearmint. Alternatively, because tea easily retains odours, it can be placed in proximity to an aromatic ingredient to absorb its aroma, as in traditionaljasmine tea.[89]
Black tea is often taken with milk.
The addition of milk to tea in Europe was first mentioned in 1680 by the epistolistMadame de Sévigné.[90] Many teas are traditionally drunk with milk in cultures where dairy products are consumed. These include Indianmasala chai and British tea blends. These teas tend to be very hearty varieties of black tea which can be tasted through the milk, such as Assams, or the East Friesian blend. Milk is thought to neutralise remaining tannins and reduce acidity.[91][92] TheHan Chinese do not usually drink milk with tea but theManchus do, and the elite of the Qing Dynasty of the Chinese Empire continued to do so.Hong Kong-style milk tea is based on British habits.Tibetans and other Himalayan peoples traditionally drink tea with milk oryak butter and salt. In Eastern European countries, and in Russia and Italy, tea is commonly served with lemon juice. In Poland, tea is traditionally served with a slice of lemon and is sweetened with either sugar or honey; tea with milk is called abawarka ("Bavarian style") inPolish and is widely popular.[93] In Australia, tea with milk is known as "white tea".
The order of steps in preparing a cup of tea is a much-debated topic and can vary widely between cultures and individuals. Some say it is preferable to add the milk to the cup before the tea, as the high temperature of freshly brewed tea can denature the proteins found in fresh milk, similar to the change in taste ofUHT milk, resulting in an inferior-tasting beverage.[94] Others insist it is better to add the milk to the cup after the tea, as black tea is often brewed as close to boiling as possible. The addition of milk chills the beverage during the crucial brewing phase, if brewing in a cup rather than using a pot, meaning the delicate flavour of a good tea cannot be fully appreciated. By adding the milk afterwards, it is easier to dissolve sugar in the tea and to ensure the desired amount of milk is added, as the colour of the tea can be observed.[95] Historically, the order of steps was taken as an indication of class: only those wealthy enough to afford good-quality porcelain would be confident of its being able to cope with being exposed to boiling water unadulterated with milk.[96] Higher temperature difference means fasterheat transfer, so the earlier milk is added, the slower the drink cools. A 2007 study published in theEuropean Heart Journal found certainbeneficial effects of tea may be lost through the addition of milk.[97]
In 1907, American tea merchant Thomas Sullivan began distributing samples of his tea in small bags of silk with a drawstring. Consumers noticed they could simply leave the tea in the bag and reuse it with fresh tea. However, the potential of this distribution and packaging method would not be fully realised until later. During World War II, tea was rationed in the United Kingdom. In 1953, afterrationing in the UK ended,Yorkshire-based tea manufacturerTetley launched the tea bag in the UK, and it was an immediate success.
The "pyramid tea bag" (or sachet), introduced by Lipton[98] and PG Tips/Scottish Blend in 1996,[99] attempts to address one of the connoisseurs' arguments against paper tea bags by way of its three-dimensionaltetrahedron shape, which allows more room for tea leaves to expand while steeping.[100] However, some types of pyramid tea bags have been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly, since their synthetic material is not as biodegradable as loose tea leaves and paper tea bags.[101]
Loose tea
A blend of loose-leaf black teas
The tea leaves are packaged loosely in a canister, paper bag, or other container such as atea chest. Some whole teas, such as rolledgunpowder tea leaves, which resist crumbling, are vacuum-packed for freshness inaluminised packaging for storage and retail. The loose tea is individually measured for use, allowing for flexibility and flavour control at the expense of convenience. Strainers,tea balls, tea presses, filtered teapots, and infusion bags prevent loose leaves from floating in the tea and over-brewing. A traditional method uses a three-piece lidded teacup called agaiwan, the lid of which is tilted to decant the tea into a different cup for consumption.
Compressed tea
Sheng (raw)pu-erhtuo cha, a type of compressed aged raw pu-erh
Tea bricks or compressed tea are produced for convenience in transport, storage, and ageing. It can usually be stored longer without spoilage than loose leaf tea. Compressed tea is prepared by loosening leaves from the cake using a small knife, and steeping the extracted pieces in water. During the Tang dynasty, as described by Lu Yu, compressed tea was ground into a powder, combined with hot water, and ladled into bowls, resulting in a "frothy" mixture.[102] In theSong dynasty, the tea powder would instead be whisked with hot water in the bowl. Although no longer practiced in China today, the whisking method of preparing powdered tea was transmitted to Japan byZenBuddhist monks, and is still used to preparematcha in theJapanese tea ceremony.[103] Chinesepu-erh is often distributed in the form, as other teas may sometimes be.
Compressed tea was the most popular form of tea in China during the Tang dynasty.[104] By the beginning of the Ming dynasty, it had been displaced by loose-leaf tea.[105] It remains popular, however, in the Himalayan countries and Mongolian steppes. In Mongolia, tea bricks were ubiquitous enough to be used as a form of currency. Among Himalayan peoples, compressed tea is consumed by combining it withyak butter and salt to producebutter tea.[106]
"Instant tea", similar tofreeze-driedinstant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, withNestlé introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instanticed tea in 1953. Additives such aschai, vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as ispowdered milk.
During the Second World War British and Canadian soldiers were issued an instant tea in their composite ration ("compo") packs. These blocks of instant tea, powdered milk, and sugar were not always well received. As Royal Canadian Artillery Gunner, George C Blackburn observed:
But, unquestionably, the feature of Compo rations destined to be remembered beyond all others is Compo tea...Directions say to "sprinkle powder on heated water and bring to the boil, stirring well, three heaped teaspoons to one pint of water."Every possible variation in the preparation of this tea was tried, but...it always ended up the same way. While still too hot to drink, it is a good-looking cup of strong tea. Even when it becomes just cool enough to be sipped gingerly, it is still a good-tasting cup of tea, if you like your tea strong and sweet. But let it cool enough to be quaffed and enjoyed, and your lips will be coated with a sticky scum that forms across the surface, which if left undisturbed will become a leathery membrane that can be wound around your finger and flipped away...[107]
Canned tea is sold prepared and ready to drink. It was introduced in 1981 in Japan. The first bottled tea was introduced by an Indonesian tea company, PT. Sinar Sosro in 1969 with the brand name Teh Botol Sosro (or Sosro bottled tea).[108] In 1983, Swiss-based Bischofszell Food Ltd. was the first company to bottle iced tea on an industrial scale.[109]
In many cultures, tea is consumed at elevated social events, such as thetea party.Tea ceremonies have arisen in different cultures, such as theChinese andJapanese traditions, each of which employs certain techniques and ritualised protocol of brewing and serving tea for enjoyment in a refined setting. One form of Chinese tea ceremony is theGongfu tea ceremony, which typically uses smallYixing clay teapots and oolong tea.
In the United Kingdom, 63% of people drink tea daily.[110] It is customary for a host to offer tea to guests soon after their arrival. Tea is consumed both at home and outside the home, often in cafés ortea rooms.Afternoon tea with cakes on fine porcelain is a cultural stereotype. In southwest England, many cafés serve acream tea, consisting of scones,clotted cream, and jam alongside a pot of tea.
Ireland, as of 2016, was the second-biggest per capita consumer of tea in the world, after Turkey.[111] Local blends are the most popular in Ireland, includingIrish breakfast tea, using Rwandan, Kenyan and Assam teas. The annual national average of tea consumption in Ireland is 2.7 kg to 4 kg per person.Tea in Ireland is usually taken with milk or sugar and brewed longer for a stronger taste.[112]
Turkish tea is an important part ofthat country's cuisine and is the most commonly consumed hot drink, despite the country's long history with coffee. In 2004, Turkey produced 205,500 tonnes of tea (6.4% of the global total), which made it one of the largest tea markets in the world,[113] with 120,000 tons being consumed in Turkey and the rest being exported.[114] In 2010, Turkey had the highest per capita consumption in the world at 2.7 kg.[115] As of 2013, the per-capita consumption of Turkish tea exceeds 10 cups per day and 13.8 kg per year.[116] Tea is grown mostly inRize Province on the Black Sea coast.[117]
South Indian woman preparing a cup of morning tea in the traditional South Indian way
In Pakistan, both black and green teas are popular and are known locally assabz chai andkahwah, respectively. The popular green tea is often served after every meal in thePashtun belt ofBalochistan and inKhyber Pakhtunkhwa. In central and southern Punjab and the metropolitan Sindh region of Pakistan, tea with milk and sugar (sometimes with pistachios, cardamom, etc.), commonly referred to aschai, is widely consumed. It is the most common beverage of households in the region. In the northern Pakistani regions ofChitral andGilgit-Baltistan, a salty, butteredTibetan-style tea is consumed.
Indian tea culture is strong; the drink is the most popular hot beverage in the country. It is consumed daily[119] in almost all houses, offered to guests, consumed in high amounts in domestic and official surroundings, and is made with the addition of milk with or without spices, and usually sweetened. It is sometimes served with biscuits to be dipped in the tea and eaten before consuming the tea. More often than not, it is drunk in "doses" of small cups (referred to as "cutting" chai if sold at street tea vendors) rather than one large cup.
Iranians usually drink tea with rock candy or ghand and in glass cups.
Iranians have one of the highest per capita rates of tea consumption in the world.Châikhânes (teahouses) are common in Iran.[120] Iranian tea is typically served in traditional Iranian glasses with a traditional saucer and teaspoon. Tea is cultivated innorthern Iran along the shores of theCaspian Sea.[121]
In Burma (Myanmar), tea is consumed not only as hot drinks, but also assweet tea and green tea known locally aslaphet-yay andlaphet-yay-gyan, respectively. Pickled tea leaves, known locally aslahpet, are a national delicacy. Pickled tea is usually eaten with roasted sesame seeds, crispy fried beans, roasted peanuts and fried garlic chips.[122]
In Mali,gunpowder tea is served in series of three, starting with the highest oxidisation or strongest, unsweetened tea, locally referred to as "strong like death", followed by a second serving, where the same tea leaves are boiled again with some sugar added ("pleasant as life"), and a third one, where the same tea leaves are boiled for the third time with yet more sugar added ("sweet as love"). Green tea is the central ingredient of a distinctly Malian custom, the "Grin", an informal social gathering that cuts across social and economic lines, starting in front of family compound gates in the afternoons and extending late into the night, and is widely popular inBamako and other large urban areas.[123]
Tea is the most popular manufactured drink consumed in the world, equaling all others – including coffee, soft drinks, and alcohol – combined.[9] Most tea consumed outside East Asia is produced on large plantations in the hilly regions of India and Sri Lanka and is destined to be sold to large businesses. Opposite this large-scale industrial production are many small "gardens," sometimes minuscule plantations, that produce highly sought-after teas prized by gourmets. These teas are both rare and expensive and can be compared to some of the most expensive wines in this respect.[citation needed]
India is the world's largest tea-drinking nation,[126] although the per capita consumption of tea remains a modest 750 grams (26 oz) per person every year. Turkey, with 2.5 kilograms (5 lb 8 oz) of tea consumed per person per year, is the world's greatest per capita consumer.[127]
Certification
Several bodies independently certify the production of tea, such asRainforest Alliance,Fairtrade,UTZ Certified, andOrganic. From 2008 to 2016, sustainability standards-certified tea production experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 35%, accounting for at least 19% of overall tea production. In 2016, at least 1.15 million tonnes of sustainably certified tea was produced, valued at US$2 billion.[128]
Rainforest Alliance certified tea is sold byUnilever brandsLipton andPG Tips in Western Europe, Australia and the U.S. Fairtrade certified tea is sold by a large number of suppliers around the world. UTZ Certified tea is sold byPickwick tea.[citation needed]
Issues
Safety
Tests of commercially popular teas have detected residues of banned toxicpesticides.[129][130]
Fraud
Tea is a common target offood fraud. Lower cost ingredients may be substituted for tea, or a tea may be adulterated with undeclared and possibly toxic colors and flavors. The origin of the tea, picking season, and the processing techniques may be intentionally misidentified. Tea powders which undergo additional processing are more susceptible to food fraud.[131]
^Yamamoto, T; Kim, M; Juneja, L R (1997).Chemistry and Applications of Green Tea. CRC Press. p. 4.ISBN978-0-8493-4006-2.For a long time, botanists have asserted the dualism of tea origin from their observations that there exist distinct differences in the morphological characteristics between Assamese varieties and Chinese varieties... Hashimoto and Shimura reported that the differences in the morphological characteristics in tea plants are not necessarily the evidence of the dualism hypothesis from the researches using the statistical cluster analysis method. In recent investigations, it has also been made clear that both varieties have the same chromosome number (n=15) and can be easily hybridised with each other. In addition, various types of intermediate hybrids or spontaneous polyploids of tea plants have been found in a wide area extending over the regions mentioned above. These facts may prove that the place of origin ofCamellia sinensis is in the area including the northern part of the Burma, Yunnan, and Sichuan districts of China.
^Mary Lou Heiss; Robert J. Heiss.The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide.Camellia sinensis originated in southeast Asia, specifically around the intersection of 29th parallel and 98th meridian, the point of confluence of the lands of southwest China and Tibet, north Burma, and northeast India, citing Mondal (2007) p. 519
^Martin, p. 29: "beginning in the third century CE, references to tea seem more credible, in particular those dating to the time of Hua T'o, a highly respected physician and surgeon"
^abYee, L.K.,Tea's Wonderful History, The Chinese Historical and Cultural Project, archived fromthe original on 3 August 2002, retrieved17 June 2013,year 1996–2012
^Driem, George van (2019). "The Primordial Origins of Tea".The tale of tea: a comprehensive history of tea from prehistoric times to the present day. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. p. 20.ISBN978-9004386259.
^Jeremiah Curtin,A Journey to Southern Siberia, 1909, chapter one
^Basil Dymytryshyn,Russia's Conquest of Siberia: A Documentary Record, 1985, volume one, document 48 (he was an envoy that year, but the tea may have been given on a later visit to the Khan)
^abcColleen Taylor Sen (2004).Food Culture in India. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 26.ISBN978-0-313-32487-1.Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved10 January 2016.Ironically, it was the British who introduced tea drinking to India, initially to anglicized Indians. Tea did not become a mass drink there until the 1950s when the India Tea Board, faced with a surplus of low-grade tea, launched an advertising campaign to popularize it in the north, where the drink of choice was milk.
^Williamson G, Dionisi F, Renouf M (2011). "Flavanols from green tea and phenolic acids from coffee: critical quantitative evaluation of the pharmacokinetic data in humans after consumption of single doses of beverages".Mol Nutr Food Res.55 (6):864–873.doi:10.1002/mnfr.201000631.PMID21538847.
^"Green Tea". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. 2014.Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved25 October 2014.
^Fung KF, Zhang ZQ, Wong JW, Wong MH (1999). "Fluoride contents in tea and soil from tea plantations and the release of fluoride into tea liquor during infusion".Environmental Pollution.104 (2):197–205.doi:10.1016/S0269-7491(98)00187-0.
^abcd"Camellia Sinensis". Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plants Products. 3 July 1996.Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved26 October 2010.
^"Tea"(PDF).The Compendium of Washington Agriculture. Washington State Commission on Pesticide Registration. 2010. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 10 August 2011. Retrieved26 April 2011.
^Rolfe, Jim & Cave, Yvonne (2003).Camellias: A Practical Gardening Guide. Timber Press.ISBN978-0-88192-577-7.
^Pruess, Joanna (2006).Tea Cuisine: A New Approach to Flavoring Contemporary and Traditional Dishes. Globe Pequot.ISBN978-1-59228-741-3.
^Mondal, T. K. (2007). "Tea". In Pua, E.C.; Davey, M.R. (eds.).Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry. Vol. 60: Transgenic Crops V. Berlin: Springer. pp. 519–20.ISBN978-3-540-49160-6.
^Somnath Roy; Narayanannair Muraleedharan; Ananda Mukhapadhyay; Gautam Handique (24 April 2015). "The tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis theivora Waterhouse (Heteroptera: Miridae): its status, biology, ecology and management in tea plantations".International Journal of Pest Management, 61:3.61 (3):179–197.doi:10.1080/09670874.2015.1030002.S2CID83481846.
^Kruszelnicki, Karl S. (3 February 2000)."Biscuit Dunking Physics".www.abc.net.au.Archived from the original on 11 June 2019. Retrieved12 September 2019.
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