Taxus communis var.pyramidalis(hort. ex Ravenscr., C. Lawson et al.) Nelson
Taxus distichaWender. ex Henkel & Hochst.
Taxus dovastoniiCarrière
Taxus elegantissimaCarrière
Taxus elvastonensisBeissn.
Taxus empetrifoliaGordon
Taxus erectaCarrière
Taxus ericoidesCarrière
Taxus expansaK.Koch
Taxus fastigiataLindl.
Taxus foxiiCarrière
Taxus hibernicaHook. ex Loudon
Taxus horizontalisCarrière
Taxus imperialisGordon
Taxus jacksoniiK.Koch
Taxus lugubrisSalisb.
Taxus marginataCarrière
Taxus micheliiCarrière
Taxus microphyllaGordon
Taxus mitchelliiCarrière
Taxus monstrosaGordon
Taxus nanaParl.
Taxus parvifoliaWender.
Taxus pectinataGilib.
Taxus pendulaCarrière
Taxus pyramidalis(hort. ex Ravenscr., C. Lawson et al.) Severin
Taxus pyramidalisCarrière
Taxus recurvataC.Lawson
Taxus sparsifoliaLoudon
Taxus tardiva(Siebold ex Endl.) C.Lawson
Taxus variegataCarrière
Taxus virgataWall. ex Gordon
Verataxus adpressa(Carrière) Carrière
Taxus baccata is an Old World species ofevergreen tree in the familyTaxaceae. It is the tree originally known asyew, though with other related trees becoming known, it is sometimes calledcommon yew,[4]European yew, or, in North America,English yew.[5] It is a woodland tree in its native range, including much of Eurasia andNorthwest Africa. All parts of the plant except the fleshyaril are poisonous, with toxins that can be absorbed through inhalation, ingestion, and transpiration through the skin.
The wood has been prized for makinglongbows and for musical instruments such aslutes. Yews are often grown asornamental trees, hedges ortopiaries, including in churchyards, where they sometimes reach great age; many explanations have been given for this planting, especially that the yew is associated with death, immortality, and rebirth. Multiple place names derive from the Proto-Celtic*eburos, but scholars disagree as to whether this meant the yew tree.
The speciesTaxus baccata was first described in 1753 byCarl Linnaeus in hisSpecies Plantarum. The name remains accepted, despite the many descriptions by later taxonomists, resulting in 108 synonyms.[6][7] Linnaeus created the generic nameTaxus, perhaps from the Greektoxon, abow.[8]
Yews are small to medium-sizedevergreen trees, growing up to 10–20 metres (35–65 ft) or exceptionally 28 m (92 ft) tall, with a trunk up to 2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) or exceptionally 4 m (13 ft) in diameter. Thebark is thin, scaly reddish-brown, and comes off in small flakes aligned with the stem. Theleaves are flat, dark green,1–4 centimetres (1⁄2–1+1⁄2 in) long,2–3 millimetres (1⁄16–1⁄8 in) broad, andarranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows on either side of the stem, except on erect leading shoots where the spiral arrangement is more obvious.[12][13][14]
Theseed cones are modified, each cone containing a single seed, which is4–7 mm (3⁄16–1⁄4 in) long and almost surrounded by a fleshy scale which develops into a soft, bright red berry-likearil. The aril is8–15 mm (5⁄16–9⁄16 in) long and wide and open at the end. The arils mature 6 to 9 months after pollination.[12][13][14]
The aril is gelatinous and very sweet tasting. The male cones are globose,3–6 mm (1⁄8–1⁄4 in) in diameter, and shed theirpollen in early spring. Yews are mostlydioecious with male and female cones on separate trees, but occasional individuals can be variablymonoecious, or change sex with time.[12][13]
The yew is native to all countries of Europe (exceptIceland), theCaucasus, and beyond fromTurkey eastwards to northernIran. Its range extends south toMorocco andAlgeria in North Africa,[1] and parts ofSouthwest andSouth Asia.[15] A few populations are present in the archipelagos of theAzores[16] andMadeira.[17] The limit of its northernScandinavian distribution is its sensitivity to frost, withglobal warming predicted to allow its spread inland.[1] It has been introduced elsewhere, including the United States.[18]
The yew's richest central European populations are in Swiss yew-beech woodlands, on cool, steepmarl slopes up to 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) in elevation in theJura Mountains andAlpine foothills. In England it grows best in steep slopes of thechalk downs, forming extensive stands invading the grassland outside the beech woods. In morecontinental climates of Europe it fares better inmixed forests of bothconiferous and mixed broadleaf-conifer composition. Under its evergreen shade, no other plants can grow.[1]
The species prefers steep rockycalcareous slopes. It rarely develops beyond saplings on acid soil when under a forest canopy, but is tolerant of soil pH when planted by humans, such as their traditional placement inchurchyards andcemeteries, where some of the largest and oldest trees in northwestern Europe are found.[1] It grows well in well-drained soils,[19] tolerating nearly any soil type, typicallyhumus andbase-rich soils, but also onrendzina andsand soils given adequate moisture. They can survive temporary flooding and moderate droughts. Roots can penetrate extremely compressed soils, such as on rocky terrain and vertical cliff faces.[2] It normally appears individually or in small groups within theunderstory, but forms stands throughout its range,[2] such as in sheltered calcareous sites.[19] It is extremely shade-tolerant, with the widest temperature range forphotosynthesis among European trees, able to photosynthesize in winter after deciduous trees have shed their leaves.[2] It can grow under partial canopies ofbeech and otherdeciduous broad-leafed trees, though it only grows into large trees without such shade.[1]
The arils are eaten by birds, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings.[12][13][14] Although they contain toxins, the kernels are extracted and eaten by some birds, such ashawfinches,[20]greenfinches, andgreat tits.[21]
Historically, yew populations were gravely threatened by felling for longbows and destruction to protect livestock from poisoning. It is now endangered in parts of its range due to intensive land use. The species is also harvested to meet pharmaceutical demand fortaxanes. Trees are often damaged bybrowsing and bark stripping. Yew's thin bark makes it vulnerable to fire. Its toxicity protects against many insects, but theyew mite causes significant bud mortality, and seedlings can be killed by fungi.[2]
Clippings from ancient specimens in the United Kingdom, including the Fortingall Yew, were taken to theRoyal Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh to form a mile-long hedge. The purpose of this "Yew Conservation Hedge Project" is to maintain the DNA ofTaxus baccata.[22] A conservation programme was run inCatalonia in the early 2010s by theForest Sciences Centre of Catalonia in order to protect genetically endemic yew populations and preserve them fromovergrazing and forest fires.[23] In the framework of this programme, the 4th International Yew Conference was organised in the Poblet Monastery in 2014.[24] There has been a conservation programme in northern Portugal andNorthern Spain (Cantabrian Range).[25]
The entire plant is poisonous, with the exception of the aril (the red flesh of the "berry" covering the seed). Yews contain numerous toxic compounds, including alkaloids,ephedrine,nitriles, andessential oil. The most important toxins aretaxine alkaloids; these arecardiotoxic compounds which act via calcium and sodium channel antagonism.[26][27] If any leaves or seeds of the plant are ingested, urgent medical attention is recommended as well as observation for at least six hours after the point of ingestion.[28][19]
Yew poisonings are relatively common in both domestic and wild animals which consume the plant accidentally,[29][30][31] resulting in numerous livestock fatalities.[32] Taxines are absorbed efficiently via the skin.[13] Rabbits and deer have a level of immunity to the poisonous alkaloids.[1]
According to Ondřej Piskač, "The lethal dose for an adult is reported to be 50 g of yew needles. Patients who ingest a lethal dose frequently die due tocardiogenic shock, in spite of resuscitation efforts."[33] There are currently no known antidotes for yew poisoning, but drugs such asatropine have been used to treat the symptoms.[34] Taxine remains in the plant all year, with maximal concentrations appearing during the winter. Dried yew plant material retains its toxicity for several months,[35] and even increases its toxicity as the water is removed.[36] Fallen leaves should therefore also be considered toxic. Poisoning usually occurs when leaves of yew trees are eaten, but in at least one case, a victim inhaled sawdust from a yew tree.[37]
Male yews are extremely allergenic, blooming and releasing abundant amounts of pollen in the spring, with anOPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10. Completely female yews have an OPALS rating of 1, the lowest possible, trapping pollen while producing none.[38] While yew pollen does not contain sufficient taxine alkaloids to cause poisoning, its allergenic potential has been implicated in adverse reactions topaclitaxel treatment.[39]
Yew wood was historically important, finding use in theMiddle Ages in items such as musical instruments, furniture, andlongbows. The species was felled nearly to extinction in much of Europe. In the modern day, it is not considered a commercial crop due to its very slow growth, but it is valued for hedging andtopiary.[2] Certain compounds in yew clippings are precursors of thechemotherapy drugtaxol.[40]
Wood from the yew is a closed-poresoftwood, similar tocedar andpine. Easy to work, it is among the hardest of the softwoods, yet it possesses a remarkable elasticity, making it ideal for products that require springiness, such as bows.[41] The wood is esteemed forcabinetry and tool handles.[19] The hard, slow-growing wood also finds use in gates, furniture,parquet floors, andpaneling. Its typicalburls and contorted growth, with intricate multicolored patterns, make it attractive for carving andwoodturning, but also make the wood unsuited for construction.[1] It is good firewood and is sometimes burnt as incense.[19] Due to all parts of the yew and its volatile oils being poisonous and cardiotoxic,[12][13][42] a mask should be worn if one comes in contact with sawdust from the wood.[43]
One of the world's oldest surviving wooden artifacts is aClactonian yew spear head,[44] found in 1911 atClacton-on-Sea, inEssex, England. Known as theClacton Spear, it is around 400,000 years old.[45][46] Another spear made from yew is theLehringen spear found in Germany, dating to around 120,000 years ago, thought to have been created byNeanderthals, and near the skeleton of astraight-tusked elephant which it was likely used to kill.[47]
The trade of yew wood to England for longbows was so robust that it depleted the stocks of good-quality, mature yew over a vast area. The first documented import of yew bowstaves to England was in 1294. In 1423, the Polish king commanded protection of yews in order to cut exports, facing nearly complete destruction of local yew stock.[48] In 1470, compulsory archery practice was renewed, andhazel,ash, andlaburnum were specifically allowed for practice bows. Supplies still proved insufficient until by theStatute of Westminster in 1472, every ship coming to an English port had to bring four bowstaves for everytun.[49]
In 1507, theHoly Roman Emperor asked theDuke of Bavaria to stop cutting yew, but the trade was profitable, and in 1532, the royalmonopoly was granted for the usual quantity "if there are that many". In 1562, the Bavarian government sent a long plea to the Holy Roman Emperor asking him to stop the cutting of yew, and outlining the damage done to the forests by its selective extraction, which broke the canopy and allowed wind to destroy neighbouring trees. In 1568, despite a request fromSaxony, no royal monopoly was granted because there was no yew to cut, and the next year,Bavaria and Austria similarly failed to produce enough yew to justify a royal monopoly. Forestry records in this area in the 17th century do not mention yew, and it seems that no mature trees were to be had. The English tried to obtain supplies from the Baltic, but at this period, bows were being replaced by guns in any case.[50]
Englishlongbow made of yew. It is 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) long with a draw force of 110 pounds-force (470 N).
Yew has for centuries been used in musical instruments. Yew was a prized wood forlute construction from the 16th century, used by theTieffenbrucker family ofluthiers in Venice and then by other lute-makers.[51]
Tieffenbruckerlute made of yew, spruce, ebony, and maple. Italy, late 16th century
Italianmandolin made of yew, spruce, bone, and ebony. Italy, 1770
Yew is widely used in landscaping and ornamental horticulture. Due to its dense, dark green, mature foliage, and its tolerance of severe pruning, it is used especially for formalhedges andtopiary. Its relatively slow growth rate means that in such situations it needs to be clipped only once per year (in late summer). It tolerates a wide range of soils and situations, including shallow chalk soils and shade.[52][53] The species is tolerant of urban pollution, cold, and heat, though soil compaction can harm it. It is slow-growing, taking about 20 years to grow 4.5 metres (15 ft) tall, and vertical growth effectively stops after 100 years.[19]
In Europe, the species grows naturally north toMolde in southern Norway, but is used in gardens further north. It is popular as abonsai in many parts of Europe.[54]
Well over 200 yewcultivars have been named. The most popular of these are theIrish yew (T. baccata var 'Fastigiata'), selected from two trees found growing in Ireland, and the several cultivars with yellow leaves, collectively known as "golden yew".[13][55]
The edible arils, often called "yew berries" (or traditionally as "snotty gogs" in parts of England[64]), are eaten by some foragers in western countries, though the seed inside the aril is toxic.[65]
The yew can reach at least 600 years of age, but ages are often overestimated.[66] Ten yews in Britain are believed to predate the 10th century.[67] The potential age of yews is impossible to determine accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the entire tree, while the boughs themselves often become hollow with age, makingring counts impossible. Growth rates and archaeological work of surrounding structures suggest the oldest yews, such as theFortingall Yew inPerthshire, Scotland, may be 2,000 years old or more, placing them among the oldest plants in Europe.[68][69][70] The Fortingall Yew has one of the largest recorded trunk girths in Britain, reportedly 16–17 m (52–56 ft) in the 18th century.[71] TheLlangernyw Yew inClwyd, Wales, at another early saint site, is some 4,000–5,000 years old according to an investigation led by the botanistDavid Bellamy,[72] who carbon-dated a yew inTisbury, Wiltshire at around 4,000 years old.[73]
TheAnkerwycke Yew is an ancient yew tree close to the ruins ofSt Mary's Priory, the site of aBenedictine nunnery built in the 12th century, nearWraysbury inBerkshire, England. It is amale tree with a girth of 8 metres (26 ft) at 0.3 metres.[74] The tree is at least 1,400 years old,[75] and could be as old as 2,500 years.[76]
TheBalderschwang Yew, estimated to be 600 to 1,000 years old, may be the oldest tree in Germany.[77] TheCaesarsboom, Caesar's Tree inLo, Belgium, is thought to be over 2,000 years old.[78] TheFlorence Court Yew inCounty Fermanagh, Northern Ireland is the oldest tree of the Irish Yew cultivar, (Taxus baccata 'Fastigiata'). The cultivar has become ubiquitous in cemeteries across the world, and it is believed that all known examples are from cuttings from this tree.[79]
TheBermiego Yew inAsturias, Spain stands 15 m (49 ft) tall with a trunk diameter of6.82 m (22 ft4+1⁄2 in) and a crown diameter of 15 m (49 ft). It was declared a Natural Monument in 1995 by the Asturian government and is protected by the Plan of Natural Resources.[80]
The Borrowdale Yews were described byWilliam Wordsworth in his 1815 poem "Yew Trees", including the lines:[81]
Of vast circumference and gloom profound This solitary Tree! -a living thing Produced too slowly ever to decay; Of form and aspect too magnificent To be destroyed. But worthier still of note Are those fraternal Four of Borrowdale, Joined in one solemn and capacious grove;
In theAnglo-Saxon futhark, the thirteenthrune had a value that was possiblyeu, and which was formerly taken to represent Old Englisheo, eow, iw meaning "yew". TheRunic Poem calls iteoh, while theCodex Salisburgensis andIsruna Tracts name itih.[82]
In theCrann Ogham, a variation on the ancient IrishOgham alphabet which consists of a list of trees, "yew" is the last in the main list of 20 trees, primarily symbolizing death. As the ancient Celts also believed in thetransmigration of the soul, there is a secondary meaning of the eternal soul that survives death to be reborn in a new form.[83]
Words thought to mean 'yew tree' appear in some place names.Ydre in theSouth Swedish highlands means "place of yews".[84]Proto-Celtic *eburos is the source of several placenames, but its association with the yew is disputed.[85][86] If correct, it led to multiple forms:Old Irishibar;Irishiobhar,iubhar, andiúr (as inTerenure (Irish:Tír an Iúir, meaning 'land of the yew tree')[87]), as well asScottish Gaeliciubhar.[88] Thus,Newry, Northern Ireland is an anglicization ofAn Iúraigh, an oblique form ofAn Iúrach, which could mean "the grove of yew trees".[89]York (Old Norse:Jórvík) is derived from theBrittonic nameEburākon (Latinised variously asEboracum,Eburacum, from the Proto-Celtic.[88]
Several scholars have taken the Celtic word*eburos to mean "yew".[90][91][92][93] There is according to the scholar of EnglishRalph Elliott, "strong evidence" that the yew was important to the ancient Celtic peoples of Western Europe, perhaps having come to symbolise immortality through being evergreen.[94] On theIberian Peninsula, a deityEburianus is named on a tombstone inSegovia, with related placenames like Ebura, and theGallic peoples Eburanci,Eburones, andEburovices.[95]Julius Caesar recorded that the Eburones' chieftainCatuvolcus killed himself by consuming yew.[95][96] The Roman historiansLucius Annaeus Florus[95] andOrosius record that in theCantabrian Wars, the besieged people atMons Medullius killed themselves the same way.[97] The structures translated as "booths" or "temples", Latinfana, mentioned by Roman historians such asPliny the Elder, may have been hollow trees or structures of yew branches.[98]
Scholars have proposed that the yew was important to Celtic peoples.[94]Celtic cross and yew tree,Laneast, Cornwall
The Proto-Celtic word*eburos may have meant therowan, not the yew.[86]
Other linguists, such asAndrew Breeze andPeter Schrijver, dispute the etymological connection of*eburos and "yew".[85][86] Breeze doubts that the Roman name of the city ofYork,Eburacum, meant "place where yews grow".[85] Schrijver states that while*eburos was certainly thename of a plant, the only good evidence for its meaning "yew" is the Old Irishibar, Scottish Gaeliciubhar. In other Celtic languages, it means other plants: Bretonevor "alder buckthorn", and Welshefwr "hogweed"; in Continental Celtic, it may have meant therowan tree, as evidenced indirectly by GermanEber-esche.[86] Schrijver agrees that names of people, places, and a god make use of*eburos, but writes that the poisonings, as of Catuvolcus, do not prove a connection of the word with the yew, as the plant's toxicity was widely known, not limited to one tribe. He suggests that the Proto-Celtic*eburos probably meant the rowan, remaining as such on the continent, but becoming attached later to other plants in Ireland and Wales. The Welshyw and Old Irishéo imply Proto-Celtic *iwo for "yew"; Schrijver suggests this was the one and only Proto-Celtic name for the tree.[86]
Peter Schrijver's reconstruction of the etymology of the Celtic words for "yew"[86]
The yew is traditionally and regularly found inchurchyards in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, andNormandy in Northern France. Some examples can be found inLa Haye-de-Routot orLa Lande-Patry. It is said up to 40 people could stand inside one of the La-Haye-de-Routot yew trees, and theLe Ménil-Ciboult yew is probably the largest, with a girth of 13 m.[101]
Norman chapel in a yew tree, Church of Notre-Dame, La Haye-de-Routot, France
Multiple explanations for the association with churchyards have been proposed. Some Anglo-Saxon churches may have been built intentionally on "places of assembly, not improbably sites of earlier paganfanes where ritual and yew magic went hand in hand."[94] Another theory is that yews were planted at religious sites as their long life was suggestive of eternity, or because, being toxic when ingested, they were seen as trees of death.[83] Some yews existed before their churches, as preachers held services beneath them when churches were unavailable. The ability of their branches to root and sprout anew after touching the ground may have caused yews to become symbols of death, rebirth, and therefore immortality.[102] KingEdward I of England ordered yew trees to be planted in churchyards to protect the buildings.[102] The tradition of planting yew trees in churchyards throughout Britain and Ireland may have started as a resource forlongbows, such as at "Ardchattan Priory, whose yew trees, according to other accounts, were inspected byRobert the Bruce and cut to make at least some of thelongbows used at theBattle of Bannockburn."[103] Another explanation is that yews were planted to discourage farmers and drovers from letting animals wander onto the burial grounds, the poisonous foliage being the disincentive. A further possible reason is that fronds and branches of yew were often used as a substitute for palms onPalm Sunday.[104][105][102]
Proposed explanations for yews in churchyards
Reason
Explanations
Symbolised death, rebirth, eternity, immortality
Toxic;[94] long-lived;[83] ability to sprout anew;[102] evergreen, with "somber appearance"[94]
^abcdefBenham, S. E., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. "Taxus baccata in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats". In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.),European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publications Office of the EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015921+
^Garland, Tam; Barr, A. Catherine (1998).Toxic plants and other natural toxicants. International Symposium on Poisonous Plants (5th : 1997 : Texas). Wallingford, England:CAB International.ISBN0-85199-263-3.OCLC39013798.
^Alloatti, G.; Penna, C.; Levi, R.C.; Gallo, M.P.; Appendino, G.; Fenoglio, I. (1996). "Effects of yew alkaloids and related compounds on guinea-pig isolated perfused heart and papillary muscle".Life Sciences.58 (10):845–854.doi:10.1016/0024-3205(96)00018-5.PMID8602118.
^Krenzelok, EP (1998). "Is the yew really poisonous to you?".Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology.36 (3):219–23.doi:10.3109/15563659809028942.PMID9656977.
^Sztyk, Romuald (October 2003). "Obrót nieruchomościami w świetle prawa o ochronie środowiska" [Real estate transactions in the light of environmental protection law].Rejent - Miesięcznik Notariatu Polskiego (in Polish).10 (150): 227.ISSN1230-669X.
^Britain, Great (1762).Statutes at Large ...: (43 v.) ... From Magna charta to 1800. p. 406....because that our sovereign lord the King, by a petition delivered to him in the said parliament, by the commons of the same, hath perceived That the great scarcity of bowstaves is now in this realm, and the bowstaves that be in this realm be sold as an excessive price...
^"Yew Tree".wildfooduk. 18 January 2018. Retrieved9 September 2024.
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^Kinmonth, F. (2006). Ageing the yew – no core, no curve?International Dendrology Society Yearbook 2005: 41–46.
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^Wahlberg, Mats, ed. (2003).Svensk ortnamnslexikon(PDF) (in Swedish). Uppsala: Språk- och folkminnesinstitutet. p. 375.ISBN91-7229-020-X. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 7 August 2018. Retrieved30 April 2019.
^Sanz Aragonés, Alberto; Tabernero Galán, Carlos; Benito Bataneo, Juan Pedro; de Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia (2011). "Nueva divinidad céltica en un ara de Cuevos de Soria".Madrider Mitteilungen (in Spanish) (52):440–456.
^Matasović, Ranko (2009).Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden, Boston: Brill. p. 112.
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^Delamarre, Xavier (2003).Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise. Paris: Editions Errance. pp. 159–160.
^Andrews 1897 "The majority of authorities agree that in England; branches of yew were generally employed; and some express the opinion, that the principal object of the tree being planted in churchyards, was to supply branches of it for this purpose."
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![Scholars have proposed that the yew was important to Celtic peoples.[94] Celtic cross and yew tree, Laneast, Cornwall](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLaneast_-_Celtic_cross_and_yew_-_geograph.org.uk_-_511708.jpg)
![The Proto-Celtic word *eburos may have meant the rowan, not the yew.[86]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a20150624Sorbus_aucuparia1.jpg)
![Peter Schrijver's reconstruction of the etymology of the Celtic words for "yew"[86]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPeter_Schrijver%2527s_reconstruction_of_Celtic_etymology_of_yew.svg)
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