Before the influence ofIslam in the mid-8th century AD,Sogdian andTurkic culture was predominant. AfterGenghis Khan destroyed the city in 1219, it was rebuilt and profited from its location on theSilk Road. From the 18th to the 19th centuries, the city became anindependent city-state, before being re-conquered by theKhanate of Kokand. In 1865, Tashkent fell to theRussian Empire; as a result, it became the capital ofRussian Turkestan. InSoviet times, it witnessed major growth and demographic changes due toforced deportations from throughout the Soviet Union. Much of Tashkent was destroyed in the1966 Tashkent earthquake, but it was soon rebuilt as a model Soviet city. It was the fourth-largest city in the Soviet Union at the time, afterMoscow, Leningrad (nowSaint Petersburg) and Kiev (nowKyiv).[6]
Tashkent plays a central role in the country's economic and human development. As of 2024, it recorded the highestHDI among Uzbekistan's regions, with a score of 0.840, reflecting significant progress ineducation,healthcare, and living standards.[7] Economically, Tashkent was the leading contributor to the nationalGDP, accounting for 19% of Uzbekistan’s GDP in the first half of 2024.[8] This economic dominance is supported by ongoinginfrastructure development and urban modernization projects aimed at enhancing its role as a financial and commercial hub.[9] Nonetheless, the city faces challenges such asenvironmental concerns and the need for sustainable investment inpublic services.
Since Uzbekistan gained independence, Tashkent has retained its multiethnic population, with ethnicUzbeks forming the majority. In 2009, it celebrated 2,200 years of itswritten history.[10] The master plan of Tashkent until 2045 was approved.[11]
During its long history, Tashkent has undergone various changes in names and political and religious affiliations.Abu Rayhan Biruni wrote that the city's name Tashkent comes from the turkictash and persiankent, literally translated as "Stone City" or "City of Stones".[12]
Ilya Gershevitch (1974:55, 72) (apud Livshits, 2007:179) traces the city's old name Chach back toOld Iranian *čāiča- "area of water, lake" (cf.Čaēčista, theAral Sea's name in theAvesta) (whenceMiddle Chinese transcription *źiäk >standard ChineseShí withChinese character 石 for "stone"[13][14]), and *Čačkand ~Čačkanθ was the basis forTurkic adaptation Tashkent, popularly etymologized as "stone city".[15] Livshits proposes thatČač originally designated only theAral Sea before being used for the Tashkent oasis.[15]
Ünal (2022) critiques Gershevitch's and Livshits's etymology as being "based on too many assumptions". He instead derives the nameČač from LateProto-Turkic *t1iāt2(ă) "stone", which he proposes to be seemingly another translation, besides the apparent Chinese translation 石shí "stone", of *kaŋk- (whence Chinese transcription 康居EHC *kʰɑŋ-kɨɑ >standard ChineseKāngjū), which possibly meant "stone". AgainstHarold Walter Bailey's andEdwin G. Pulleyblank's suggestedTocharian origin for *kaŋk-, Ünal proposes that it was instead anIranian word and compares it toPashtokā́ṇay "stone".[16]
The first occupants identified in the Tashkent oasis were the Burgulik (Burghulik, Burgulyuk or Burganlik) culture, an ancient pastoral society of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. The Burgulik era is usually divided into two periods, Burgulik I occurred during the 9th to 7th centuries BCE and Burgulik II, from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. Archaeological excavations indicate that the Burgulik people were involved in animal husbandry, possibly agriculture with some irrigation and handicrafts. They lived primarily in basement shaped huts or hollowed cave dwellings and there was no evidence of wooden architecture.[17] The hill fort, Shashtepa, in the southern part of the city was constructed during Burgulik I and is believed to have been abandoned in the 7th century BCE.[18]
Shashtepa was one of the largest villages of the Burgulik era as the availability of running water from the Dzhun Aryk, a branch of the Chirchik River and fertile soil made its location ideal for the sedentary life of agriculture.[19] At the later stage (6th–3rd centuries BCE), it was influenced by the late Saka culture of Southern Kazakhstan (Usun) and the culture of Northern Fergana (Aktam burial ground).[20]
The Burgulik culture was replaced by the Kaunchin culture (Chach),[20] which is usually associated with the population of the Kangju (K'ang-chü) state, a Chinese name for a kingdom in Central Asia that existed from about 140 BCE to the 5th century CE. Chinese sources suggest that a settlement existed here at oasis near the Chirchik River in the 2nd century BCE. Tashkent might have been or near "Beitian," (Pi-tien)[21] the summer capital of Kangju.[22]
Some scholars believe that a "Stone Tower" mentioned byPtolemy in his famous treatiseGeography, and by other early accounts of travel on the oldSilk Road, referred to this settlement (due to its etymology). This tower is said to have marked the midway point betweenEurope andChina. Other scholars, however, disagree with this identification, though it remains one of four most probable sites for the Stone Tower.[23][24]
The principality of Chach had asquare citadel built around the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, some 8 km (5.0 mi) south of theSyr Darya River. By the 7th century AD, Chach had more than 30 towns and a network of over 50 canals, forming a trade center between theSogdians andTurkic nomads. TheBuddhist monkXuanzang (602/603? – 664 AD), who travelled from China to India through Central Asia, mentioned the name of the city asZhěshí (赭時). The Chinese chroniclesHistory of Northern Dynasties,Book of Sui, andOld Book of Tang mention a possession calledShí石 ("stone") orZhěshí赭時 with a capital of the same name since the fifth century AD.[27]
In 558–603, Chach was part of theTurkic Khaganate. At the beginning of the 7th century, the Turkic Khaganate, as a result of internecine wars and wars with its neighbors, disintegrated into theWestern andEastern Khaganates. The Western Turkic rulerTong Yabghu Qaghan (618-630) set up his headquarters in the Ming-bulak area to the north of Chach. Here he received embassies from the emperors of theTang Empire andByzantium.[28] In 626, the Indian Buddhist preacherPrabhakāramitra arrived with ten companions to the Khagan. In 628, Xuanzang arrived in Ming-bulak.
The Turkic rulers of Chach minted their coins with the inscription on the obverse side of the "lord of the Khakan money" (mid-8th century); with an inscription in the ruler Turk (7th century), in Nudjket in the middle of the 8th century, coins were issued with the obverse inscription "Nanchu (Banchu) Ertegin sovereign".[29]
According to the descriptions of the authors of the 10th century, Shash was structurally divided into acitadel, an inner city (madina) and two suburbs - an inner (rabad-dahil) and an outer (rabad-harij). The citadel, surrounded by a special wall with two gates, contained the ruler's palace and the prison.[31]
Under theSamanid Empire, whose founderIsmail Samani was a descendant ofPersianZoroastrian convert toIslam, the city came to be known asBinkath. However, the Arabs retained the old name ofChach for the surrounding region, pronouncing itash-Shāsh (الشاش) instead. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ali ash-Shashi, known as al-Kaffal ash-Shashi (904-975), was born in Tashkent. He was an Islamic theologian, scholar, jurist of theShafi'imadhhab, hadith scholar and linguist.[citation needed]
After the 11th century, the name evolved from Chachkand/Chashkand to Tashkand. The modern spelling of "Tashkent" reflectsRussian orthography and 20th-century Soviet influence.
At the end of the 10th century, Tashkent became part of the possessions of the Turkic state of theKarakhanids. In 998/99 the Tashkent oasis went to the Karakhanid Ahmad ibn Ali, who ruled the north-eastern regions ofMavarannahr. In 1177/78, a separate khanate was formed in the Tashkent oasis. Its center was Banakat, where dirhams of Mu'izz ad-dunya wa-d-din Qilich-khan were minted, in 1195–1197; and of Jalal ad-dunya wa-d-din Tafgach-khakan, in 1197–1206.[32]
Under theTimurid and subsequentShaybanid dynasties, the city's population and culture gradually revived as a prominent strategic center of scholarship, commerce and trade along theSilk Road.During the reign ofAmir Timur (1336-1405), Tashkent was restored and in the 14th-15th centuries Tashkent was part of Timur's empire. For Timur, Tashkent was considered a strategic city. In 1391 Timur set out in the spring from Tashkent to Desht-i-Kipchak to fight the Khan of theGolden HordeTokhtamysh Khan. Timur returned from this victorious campaign through Tashkent.[33]
Zangi ata shrine
The most famous saint Sufi of Tashkent was Sheikh Khovendi at-Takhur (13th to the first half of the 14th century). According to legend, Amir Timur, who was treating his wounded leg in Tashkent with the healing water of the Zem-Zem spring, ordered to build a mausoleum for the saint. By order of Timur, the Zangiata mausoleum was built.
Shaybanid Suyunchkhoja Khan was an enlightened Uzbek ruler; following the traditions of his ancestors MirzoUlugbek andAbul Khair Khan, he gathered famous scientists, writers and poets at his court, among them: Vasifi, Abdullah Nasrullahi, Masud bin Osmani Kuhistani. Since 1518 Vasifi was the educator of the son of Suyunchhoja Khan Keldi Muhammad, with whom, after the death of his father in 1525, he moved to Tashkent. After the death of his former pupil, he became the educator of his son, Abu-l-Muzaffar Hasan-Sultan.[36]
Later the city was subordinated to ShaybanidAbdullah Khan II (the ruler actually from 1557, officially in 1583–1598), who issued his coins here.[37] From 1598 to 1604 Tashkent was ruled by the Shaybanid Keldi Muhammad, who issued silver and copper coins on his behalf.[38]
In 1598, Kazakh Tauekel Khan was at war with theKhanate of Bukhara. The Bukhara troops sent against him were defeated by Kazakhs in the battle between Tashkent and Samarkand. During the reign of Yesim-Khan,[39] a peace treaty was concluded between Bukhara and Kazakhs, according to which Kazakhs abandoned Samarkand, but left behind Tashkent, Turkestan and a number of Syr Darya cities.
Yesim-Khan ruled theKazakh Khanate from 1598 to 1628, his main merit was that he managed to unite the Kazakh khanate. The city was part of Kazakh Khanate between 1598 and 1723.[40]
In 1784,Yunus Khoja, the ruler of the dakha (district) Shayhantahur, united the entire city under his rule and created an independentTashkent state (1784-1807), which by the beginning of the 19th century seized vast lands.[41]
In 1809, Tashkent was annexed to theKhanate of Kokand. At the time, Tashkent had a population of around 100,000 and was considered the richest city inCentral Asia.
Under the Kokand domination, Tashkent was surrounded by a moat and an adobe battlement (about 20 kilometers long) with 12 gates.[42] It prospered greatly through trade with Russia but chafed under Kokand's high taxes. The Tashkent clergy also favored the clergy ofBukhara over that of Kokand. However, before theEmir of Bukhara could capitalize on this discontent, the Russian army arrived.
In May 1865,Mikhail Grigorevich Chernyayev (Cherniaev), acting against the direct orders of theTsar and outnumbered at least 15–1, staged a daring night attack against a city with a wall 25 km (16 mi) long with 11 gates and 30,000 defenders. While a small contingent staged a diversionary attack, the main force penetrated the walls, led by aRussian Orthodox priest. Although the defense was stiff, the Russians captured the city after two days of heavy fighting and the loss of only 25 dead as opposed to several thousand of the defenders (includingAlimqul, the ruler of the Kokand Khanate). Chernyayev, dubbed the "Lion of Tashkent" by city elders, staged a hearts-and-minds campaign to win the population over. He abolished taxes for a year, rode unarmed through the streets and bazaars meeting common people, and appointed himself "Military Governor of Tashkent", recommending toTsar Alexander II that the city become an independentkhanate under Russian protection.
Coats of arms of Tashkent, 1909
The Tsar liberally rewarded Chernyayev and his men with medals and bonuses, but regarded the impulsive general as a loose cannon, and soon replaced him with GeneralKonstantin Petrovich von Kaufman. Far from being granted independence, Tashkent became the capital of the new territory ofRussian Turkistan, with Kaufman as first Governor-General. Acantonment and Russian settlement were built across the Ankhor Canal from the old city, and Russian settlers and merchants poured in. Tashkent was a center of espionage in theGreat Game rivalry between Russia and the United Kingdom over Central Asia. TheTurkestan Military District was established as part of the military reforms of 1874. TheTrans-Caspian Railway arrived in 1889, and the railway workers who built it settled in Tashkent as well, bringing with them the seeds ofBolshevik Revolution.
With the fall of theRussian Empire, theRussian Provisional Government removed all civil restrictions based on religion and nationality, contributing to local enthusiasm for theFebruary Revolution. TheTashkent Soviet of Soldiers' and Workers' Deputies was soon set up, but primarily represented Russian residents, who made up about a fifth of the Tashkent population. Muslim leaders quickly set up the Tashkent Muslim Council (Tashkand Shura-yi-Islamiya) based in the old city. On 10 March 1917, there was a parade with Russian workers marching with red flags, Russian soldiers singingLa Marseillaise and thousands of local Central Asians. Following various speeches, Governor-GeneralAleksey Kuropatkin closed the events with words "Long Live a great free Russia".[43]
The First Turkestan Muslim Conference was held in Tashkent 16–20 April 1917. Like the Muslim Council, it was dominated by theJadid, Muslim reformers. A more conservative faction emerged in Tashkent centered around theUlema. This faction proved more successful during the local elections of July 1917. They formed an alliance with Russian conservatives, while the Soviet became more radical. The Soviet attempt to seize power in September 1917 proved unsuccessful.[44]
In April 1918, Tashkent became the capital of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkestan ASSR). The new regime was threatened by White forces,basmachi; revolts from within, and purges ordered from Moscow.
Tashkent, 1917The Courage Monument (Jasorat) in Tashkent on a 1979 Soviet stamp. In the background: the Friendship of the Peoples Museum building (since 1996—Museum of Olympic Glory)
The city began to industrialize in the 1920s and 1930s.
Violating theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. The government worked to relocate factories from western Russia and Ukraine to Tashkent to preserve the Soviet industrial capacity. This led to great increase in industry during World War II.
It also evacuated most of the German communist emigres to Tashkent.[45] The Russian population increased dramatically; evacuees from the war zones increased the total population of Tashkent to well over a million. Russians andUkrainians eventually comprised more than half of the total residents of Tashkent.[46] Many of the former refugees stayed in Tashkent to live after the war, rather than return to former homes.
During the postwar period, theSoviet Union established numerous scientific and engineering facilities in Tashkent.
Much of Tashkent's old city was destroyed by a powerfulearthquake on 26 April 1966. More than 300,000 residents were left homeless, and some 78,000poorly engineered homes were destroyed,[48] mainly in the densely populated areas of the old city where traditionaladobe housing predominated.[49] The Soviet republics, and some other countries, such as Finland, sent "battalions of fraternal peoples" and urban planners to help rebuild devastated Tashkent.
Tashkent was rebuilt as a model Soviet city with wide streets planted with shade trees, parks, immense plazas for parades, fountains, monuments, and acres of apartment blocks. TheTashkent Metro was also built during this time. About 100,000 new homes were built by 1970,[48] but the builders occupied many, rather than the homeless residents of Tashkent.[citation needed] Further development in the following years increased the size of the city with major new developments in the Chilonzor area, north-east and south-east of the city.[48]
At the time of the collapse of theSoviet Union in 1991, Tashkent was the fourth-largest city in the USSR and a center of learning in the fields of science and engineering. Due to the1966 earthquake and the Soviet redevelopment, little architectural heritage has survived of Tashkent's ancient history. Few structures mark its significance as a trading point on the historicSilk Road. Such countries of the Soviet Union asAzerbaijan andArmenia,Kazakhstan andGeorgia,Belarus andKyrgyzstan,Turkmenistan andTajikistan,Latvia,Moldova,Estonia helped restore the city after the earthquake and erected many modern buildings.[50]
Tashkent is the capital of Uzbekistan, noted for its tree-lined streets, fountains and parks. In 2009, the local government initiated a controversial tree-cutting campaign.[51]
Alisher Navoi Opera and Ballet Theatre
Since 1991, the city has changed economically, culturally, and architecturally. New development has superseded or replaced icons of the Soviet era. The largest statue ever erected for Lenin was replaced with a globe, featuring a geographic map of Uzbekistan. Buildings from the Soviet era have been replaced with new modern buildings. The "Downtown Tashkent" district includes the 22-storyNBU Bank building, international hotels, the International Business Center, and the Plaza Building.
Japanese Gardens in Tashkent
The Tashkent Business district is a special district, established for the development of small, medium and large businesses in Uzbekistan. In 2018, construction began on a new Downtown which would include a business district with skyscrapers of local and foreign companies, world hotels such asHilton Tashkent Hotel, apartments, malls, shops and other entertainment. The construction of the International Business Center is planned to be completed by the end of 2021.[52] Fitch assigns "BB−" rating to Tashkent city, "Stable" forecast.[53]
In 2007, Tashkent was named a "cultural capital of the Islamic world" byMoscow News, as the city has numerous historic mosques and significant Islamic sites, including the Islamic University.[54] Tashkent holds theSamarkand Kufic Quran, one of the earliest written copies of theQuran, which has been located in the city since 1924.[55]
Tashkent is the most visited city in the country,[56] and has greatly benefited from increasingtourism as a result of reforms under presidentShavkat Mirziyoyev and opening up by abolishing visas for visitors from theEuropean Union and other developing countries or making visas easier for foreigners.[57]
In the summer of 1928, the first fully electronic TV set was presented to the public in Tashkent.Boris Grabovsky's method, patented inSaratov in 1925, proposed a new model of TV imaging based on the vertical and horizontal electron beam sweeping under high voltage. Nowadays this principle of the TV imaging is used practically in all modern cathode-ray tubes. Historian and ethnographer Boris Golender (Борис Голендер in Russian), in a video lecture, described this event.[58] This date of demonstration of the fully electronic TV set is the earliest known so far. Despite this fact, most modern historians disputably considerVladimir Zworykin andPhilo Farnsworth[59] as inventors of the first fully electronic TV set. In 1964, the contribution made to the development of early television by Grabovsky was officially acknowledged by the Uzbek government and he was awarded the prestigious degree "Honorable Inventor of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic".
Tashkent and vicinity, satellite imageLandsat 5, 2010-06-30
Tashkent is situated in a well-watered plain on the road betweenSamarkand, Uzbekistan's second city, andShymkent across theborder. Tashkent is just 13 km from two border crossings intoKazakhstan.
Closest geographic cities with populations of over 1 million are:Shymkent (Kazakhstan),Dushanbe (Tajikistan),Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan),Kashgar (China),Almaty (Kazakhstan),Kabul (Afghanistan) andPeshawar (Pakistan).
Tashkent sits at the confluence of theChirchiq River and several of its tributaries and is built on deep alluvial deposits up to 15 m (49 ft). The city is located in an active tectonic area suffering large numbers of tremors and some earthquakes.
Tashkent features aMediterranean climate (Köppen:Csa) with somehumid continental climate influences (Köppen:Dsa).[61] As a result, Tashkent experiences cold and often snowy winters not typically associated with most Mediterranean climates and long, hot and dry summers. Mostprecipitation occurs during the winter, which frequently falls as snow. The city experiences two peaks of precipitation in the early winter and spring. The slightly unusual precipitation pattern is partially due to its 500 m (1,600 ft) altitude. Summers are long in Tashkent, usually lasting from May to September. Tashkent can be extremely hot during the months of July and August. The city also sees very little precipitation during the summer, particularly from June through September.[62][63]
Climate data for Tashkent (1991–2020, extremes 1867–present)
The level ofair pollution in Tashkent, especially in winter, significantly exceeds international norms. According to theWorld Bank, the average annual pollution level is more than 6 times higher than theWHO recommended level (5 μg/m3). The main sources of air pollution are theheating sector (28%), transport (16%) and industry (13%).[66] There are 631 heating complexes around the city, according to theEcological Party of Uzbekistan 60% of them use coal, sometimesrubber tyres and other fuels.[67]
In 1983, the population of Tashkent amounted to 1,902,000 people living in a municipal area of 256 km2 (99 sq mi). By 1991, the year theSoviet Union dissolved, the city's population had grown to approximately 2,136,600. Tashkent was the fourth most populated city in the formerUSSR, afterMoscow, Leningrad (St. Petersburg), andKyiv. Nowadays, Tashkent remains the fourth most populous city in the CIS.
As of 2020, the city's population was 2,716,176.[68]
Uzbek is the main spoken language in Tashkent, thoughRussian is also spoken as a lingua franca. As in much of Uzbekistan, signage in Tashkent often contains a mix of Latin and Cyrillic scripts.[76][77]
Kukeldash Madrasa inner yardPrince Romanov PalaceAlisher Navoi Opera and Ballet TheatreMuseum of Applied ArtsA statue commemoratingTaras ShevchenkoThe Hotel Uzbekistan, which opened in 1974
Although most of the ancient city was destroyed during the1917 revolution and the 1966 earthquake, Tashkent has many museums and Soviet-era monuments:
Kukeldash Madrasah. Dating back to the reign ofAbdullah Khan II (1557–1598) it is being restored by the provincial Religious Board ofMawarannahr Moslems. There is talk of making it into a museum, but it is currently being used as a madrassah.
Chorsu Bazaar, located near the Kukeldash Madrassa is an open airbazaar in the center of the old town of Tashkent.
Hazrati Imam Complex includes several mosques, a shrine, and a library housing part of theUthman Qur'an, a manuscript Qur'an in Kufic script considered to be the oldest extantQur'an in the world. Dating from 655 and stained with the blood of murdered caliph,Uthman, it was brought by Timur toSamarkand, seized by the Russians as a war trophy, and taken toSaint Petersburg. It was returned to Uzbekistan in 1924.[82]
Qaffol Shoshi mausoleum built in honor of Imam Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Ismail al-Kaffal ash-Shashi.[83][84] The original tomb did not survive in its initial form. In its current state, the mausoleum was constructed in 1542 by the royal architect of that time, Gulyam Husayn. It is an asymmetrical domed portal mausoleum, known as a khanqah.[85]
Yunus Khan Mausoleum. It is a group of three 15th-centurymausoleums, restored in the 19th century. The biggest is the grave ofYunus Khan, grandfather ofMughal Empire founderBabur.
Palace of Prince Romanov. During the 19th centuryGrand DukeNikolai Konstantinovich, a first cousin ofAlexander III of Russia was banished to Tashkent for some shady deals involving the Russian Crown Jewels. His palace still survives in the center of the city. Once a museum, it has been appropriated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Fine Arts Museum of Uzbekistan. It contains a major collection of art from the pre-Russian period, includingSogdian murals,Buddhist statues, andZoroastrian art, along with a more modern collection of 19th and 20th centuryapplied art, such assuzani embroidered hangings. Of more interest is the large collection of paintings "borrowed" from theHermitage by Grand Duke Romanov to decorate his palace in exile in Tashkent, and never returned. Behind the museum is a small park, containing the neglected graves of theBolsheviks who died in theRussian Revolution of 1917 and toOsipov's treachery in 1919,[86] along with first Uzbekistani PresidentYuldosh Akhunbabayev.
Museum of Applied Arts. Housed in a traditional house originally commissioned for a wealthy tsarist diplomat, the house itself is the main attraction, rather than its collection of 19th and 20th centuryapplied arts.
Amir Timur Museum, housed in a building with a brilliant blue dome and ornate interior. It houses exhibits ofTimur and of PresidentIslam Karimov. To adjacent south of the museum isAmir Timur Square where there is a statue of Timur on horseback, surrounded by some of the nicest gardens and fountains in the city.
TheTashkent Metro is known for extravagant design and architecture in the buildings. Taking photos in the system was banned until 2018.[87]
The Russian Orthodox church in Amir Temur Square, built in 1898, was demolished in 2009. The building had not been allowed to be used for religious purposes since the 1920s due to the anti-religious campaign conducted across the former Soviet Union by the Bolshevik (communist) government in Moscow. During the Soviet period, the building was used for different non-religious purposes; after independence, it was a bank.
Tashkent also has a World War II memorial park and a Defender of Motherland monument.[88][89]
Most important scientific institutions of Uzbekistan, such as theAcademy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, are located in Tashkent. There are several universities and institutions of higher education:
There are several shopping malls in Tashkent. These include Tashkent City Mall, Next and Samarqand Darvoza shopping malls.[90] Most of the malls, including Riviera and Compass mall, were built and are operated by the Tower Management Group.[91] This is part of the Orient Group of Companies.
The capital's most established theatre is theAlisher Navoi Theater, that has regular ballet and opera performances. Ilkhom Theater, founded by Mark Weil in 1976, was the first independent theater in the Soviet Union. The theater still operates in Tashkent and is known for its historical reputation.
InWeightlifting, Uzbekistan won the heavyweight class in both the Rio[96] and Tokyo[96]Olympic Games. Tashkent is hosting the 2021 Weightlifting World Championships.[97]
^Sachau, Edward C. Alberuni's India: an Account of the Religion. Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030, vol. 1 London: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRtJBNBR & CO. 1910. p.298.
^abLivshits, Vladimir (2007). "The Leader of the People of Chach in Sogdian Inscriptions" in Macuch, Maggi, & Sundermann (eds.)Iranian Languages and Texts from Iran and Turan. Ronald E. Emmerick Memorial Volume. p. 179
^Pulleyblank, Edwin G. "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese,"Asia Major 9 (1963), p. 94.
^Dean, Riaz (2022).The Stone Tower: Ptolemy, the Silk Road, and a 2,000-Year-Old Riddle. Delhi: Penguin Viking. pp. 134 (Map 4), 170.ISBN978-0670093625.
^Dean, Riaz (2015). "The Location of Ptolemy's Stone Tower: the Case for Sulaiman-Too in Osh".The Silk Road.13: 76.
^Yudin V. P. Materialy po istorii kazakhskikh khanstv XV-XVIII vekov. (Izvlecheniya iz persidskikh i tyurkskikh sochineniy). — Alma-Ata : Nauka, 1969, p.174.
^Ye. A. Davidovich, Korpus zolotykh i serebryanykh monet Sheybanidov. XVI vek. M., 1992
^Burnasheva R. Z., Nekotoryye svedeniya o chekanke mednykh monet v Tashkente v XVI—XIX vv. Izvestiya Natsional'noy akademii nauk Kazakhstana, No. 1, 2007, p.153
^abcdSadikov, A C; Akramob Z. M.; Bazarbaev, A.; Mirzlaev T.M.; Adilov S. R.; Baimukhamedov X. N.; et al. (1984).Geographical Atlas of Tashkent (Ташкент Географический Атлас) (in Russian) (2 ed.). Moscow. pp. 60, 64.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Nurtaev Bakhtiar (1998)."Damage for buildings of different type". Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan. Retrieved7 November 2008.
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