| Old Kanembu | |
|---|---|
| Tarjumo | |
 = Interlinear inscriptions in Old Kanembu | |
| Native to | Nigeria,Niger |
| Region | Northern Nigeria, Southeastern Niger |
| Extinct | liturgical use only |
| Ajami script | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | txj |
| Glottolog | tarj1235 |
Tarjumo, also known asOld Kanembu orClassical Kanembu, is aclassical andsacred language created and used byMuslim scholars in theKanem–Bornu Empire, located in the centralSahel. It likely emerged in the 15th century as a liturgical and scholarly language forQur'anic exegesis and grammatical analysis of sacred texts inclassical arabic. The name Tarjumo derives from theArabic verbtarjama (ترجم), meaning "to translate."
It is classified within theNilo-Saharan language family,[1] although this classification is debated among linguists.[2][3] Old Kanembu is an early form of the Kanuri language, which became fixed through its liturgical use before the dialectal split that led to the emergence of Kanembu, spoken in the northeast ofLake Chad in present-dayChad.[4] As a result, it retains linguistic features shared with theTeda-Daza andBeria languages.[4] The Tarjumo language uses the Arabic script, and represents a complementary practice to Ajami in vernacular languages. Scholars primarily used it for grammatical analysis and the Qur’anic exegesis of sacred texts inClassical Arabic.[5] Today, Tarjumo is still used in glossing and Qur'anic exegesis (Tafsir) by a limited circle of Muslim scholars inBorno State,Nigeria,[6] as well as in southeasternNiger, particularly inZinder and Kribitoa, in theDiffa Region.[7]
The Tarjumo language is a part of the African literacy associated with Islamic scholarship in the Sahara-Sahel region, referred to as the "African Library" byOusmane Omar Kane.[8]: 34 Kanem was one of the earliest regions in the Sahara and Sahel to embrace Islam, with evidence of Islamic scholarly culture dating back to the 12th century during the reign of theSayfawa dynasty.[8]: 34 [9] In the 13th century, the writings of the Kanem poet and scholar al-Kanemi were noted by the Arab biographerIbn Khallikan.[8]: 43 Islamic scholars and experts in Quranic sciences received financial support from the Kanem court, along with numerous privileges granted through charters known asmahrams.[10]
It is within this favorable context for the production and transmission of Islamic scholarly knowledge that the practice of Quranic glossing in what is now referred to as Old Kanembu is believed to have emerged. The oldest known Old Kanembu manuscripts, such as the Geidam Quran, date back to the 17th century, they attest to an exegetical tradition that predates them.[11]
In the 16th century, when theSayfawa dynasty moved from Kanem to Bornu, southeast ofLake Chad, these scholarly practices spread to the new regions. In the 18th century, the Bornu Sultanate played a central role intrans-Saharan trade betweenKano andTripoli, utilizing the route throughBilma, theKaouar oases, andFezzan. Kanuri served as thelingua franca along this route, while written culture in Arabic, Kanuri Ajami, and Old Kanembu flourished.[12]
At the turn of the 20th century, part of the intellectual elite of Bornu went into exile, including figures such as Al-Hajj Musa ibn Hissein,[13] following the conquest of the Bornu Sultanate by the warlordRabih, and subsequentcolonial occupations by theFrench,British, andGermans in the region.[12][14] Colonial rule led to the marginalization in Western scholarship of West African Arabic and Ajami literary cultures.[8]|rp|21–41}} However, Ajami manuscripts from the Central Sahara-Sahel were already known to certainAnglican missionaries of theChurch Missionary Society by the late 19th century.[15]
These scholarly and literary traditions from the Sahel and Central Sahara were rediscovered in the late 1950s and 1960s by British academics based in Nigeria, such as W.E.N. Kensdale andJohn Hunwick from theUniversity of Ibadan, andA.D.H. Bivar from the Department of Antiquities inJos.[8]: 34 In 1959, Bivar, identified ancient Quran manuscripts—including one dated to 1st Jumādā 1080 AH (26 October 1669)—annotated in Arabic and a previously unknown second language.[16] In the 2000s, Dimitry Bondarev analyzed and identified this language, naming it Old Kanembu.[17]
The scholarly communities of Bornu employ Old Kanembu as a specialized medium for the interpretation and transmission of Qur'anic knowledge.[18] Annotations and commentaries in Old Kanembu adhered to a codified system. The stability of the practice is evidenced by manuscripts that were annotated successively by multiple scribes.[19] The manuscripts are inloose-leaf format, withcatchwords written on the verso to maintain the correct order of folios. The leaves are typically bundled using protective boards, a leather folder, or a custom-madesatchel.[20]
Depending on the manuscript, annotations appear directly alongside the main text, interlinearly for grammatical or semantic clarification, or in the margins, according to the type of analysis required.[21] These glosses are frequently accompanied by quotations from Classical Arabic exegetical sources.[19] By combiningtranslation, commentary, and Qur'anic interpretation, the glosses in Old Kanembu illustrate how linguistic code-switching influences the understanding of sacred texts.[22]
One of the distinctive features of scholarly practices and education in the Saharo-Sahelian regions is the interplay between the written Arabic of the sacred text and the African vernacular languages. This blending of modes reflects a continuum between written andoral traditions characteristic of Sahelian cultures.[23] Passages of the Qur'an are first recited aloud in Arabic and then orally translated by the scholar into vernacular languages. It is within this intellectual context that Old Kanembuexegetical practices take place, closely tied to oral interpretativeperformance.[citation needed]
During these performances, the Qur'an is recited from memory by scholars, typically beginning with the shorter finalsūrahs. Each passage is divided into units of meaning and analyzed with reference to classical exegetical texts (tafsīr), such as theTafsīr al-Jalālayn compiled byJalāl ad-Dīn al-Suyūṭī in 1505.[citation needed] These commentaries, generally read from written sources, inform the translation and interpretation of each unit of meaning into Tarjumo. The scholar adapts the format of their recitation to theaudience, either condensing or elaborating the commentary depending on the context. In more informal settings, where audience comprehension is essential, recitations are often interspersed with commentary in vernacular Kanuri.[citation needed]
Old Kanembu continues to be used today in the Nigerian state ofBorno, particularly in its capital,Maiduguri, as well as in neighbouring regions of southeasternNiger such asDamagaram, Manga, andDamergou.[7] In these areas, a modernized form of the language is sometimes referred to asTarjumo-Kanembu. It remains highly valued within the Kanuri-speaking community for its religious and cultural significance. Mastery of Old Kanembu is considered prestigious and constitutes a central component of advanced classical Islamic education (sangaya). It is publicly employed duringQur'anic exegesis performances (tarjumo) at significant events such as Arabic poetry competitions (qasīda), invocations, and recitations held throughout the month ofRamadan.[citation needed]
Thephonology of Old Kanembu is closely linked to the transcriptional possibilities offered by theAjami alphabet. In particular,tonal distinctions are indicated through the contrast betweenshort and long vowels.[24]
The phonological characteristics of Old Kanembu evolved over the four centuries documented by existing manuscripts. These phonological shifts are reflected in orthographic variations within Ajami writing, reflecting developments in vernacular languages. For instance, the letter ش (shīn), previously reserved for borrowings from Classical Arabic, was later repurposed to represent palatalized consonants in modern Kanuri, as in /shîm/ ‘eyes’.[24]
Moreover, several specific graphemes were employed to represent phonemes unique to spoken Kanuri.[24]
Old Kanembu possesses an especially rich verbal system, characterized by fifteen categories ofinflection and four categories ofderivation.[25] A central feature of the language is its system offocus, which can be eitherrhematic (absolute), emphasizing new information, orthematic (relative), referencing contextually known information. This focusing mechanism likely originates fromChadic languages, notablyHausa, which possesses analogous focus structures.[25]
The antiquity of the Bomo tafslr tradition is further supported by the analysis of the linguistic structures of Old Kanembu as evidenced in the language of Qur'an glosses; these point to earlier periods in the development of the Kanembu and Kanuri languages.
Tarjumo is a Metalanguage Used For Grammatical Analysis of Arabic, with Embedded Interpreting Power