 Illustration for the novel byPyotr Sokolov, 1861 | |
| Author | Nikolai Gogol |
|---|---|
| Language | Russian |
| Genre | Historical novel,novella |
Publication date | 1835 (1st as part of a collection) |
Taras Bulba (Russian:«Тарас Бульба»,romanized: Tarás Búl'ba) is a romanticized historicalnovella set in the first half of the 17th century, written byNikolai Gogol (1809–1852). It features the elderlyZaporozhian Cossack Taras Bulba and his sons Andriy and Ostap. The sons study at theKiev Academy and then return home, whereupon the three men set out on a journey to theZaporizhian Sich (the Zaporizhian Cossack headquarters, located in southernUkraine) where they join other Cossacks andgo to war againstPoland.
The story was initially published in 1835 as part of theMirgorod collection of short stories, but a much expanded version appeared in 1842 with some differences in the storyline. The twentieth-century criticVictor Erlich [ru] described the 1842 text as a "paragon of civic virtue and a force of patriotic edification", contrasting it with the rhetoric of the 1835 version with its "distinctly Cossackjingoism".[1]
The character of Taras Bulba, the main hero of this novel, is a composite of several historical personalities. It might be based on the real family history of an ancestor ofNicholas Miklouho-Maclay, CossackAtamanOkhrim Makukha fromStarodub, who killed his son Nazar for switching to the Polish side for treason, during theKhmelnytsky Uprising. Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay's uncle, Grigory Illich Miklouho-Maclay, studied together with Gogol inNizhynGymnasium (officially Prince Bezborodko's Gymnasium of Higher Learning, todayNizhyn Gogol State University) and probably told the family legend to Gogol.[2] Another possible inspiration was the hero of the folk song "The deeds of Sava Chaly", published byMykhailo Maksymovych, about Cossack captainSava Chaly (executed in 1741 after serving as a colonel in the private army of a Polish noble), whose killing was ordered by his own father for betraying theUkrainian cause.[3]
Taras Bulba's two sons, Ostap and Andriy, return home from anOrthodox seminary inKiev. Ostap is the more adventurous, whereas Andriy has deeply romantic feelings of an introvert. While in Kiev, he fell in love with a youngPolish noble girl, the daughter of theVoivode ofKowno, but after a couple of meetings (edging into her house and in church), he stopped seeing her when her family returned home. Taras Bulba gives his sons the opportunity to go to war. They reach the Cossack camp at theZaporozhian Sich, where there is much merrymaking. Taras attempts to rouse the Cossacks to go into battle. He rallies them to replace the existingHetman when the Hetman is reluctant to break the peace treaty.
They soon have the opportunity to fight thePoles, who rule all Ukraine west of theDnieper River. The Poles, led by their ultra-Catholicking, are accused of atrocities against Orthodox Christians, in which they are aided by Jews. After killing many of the Jewish merchants at the Sich, the Cossacks set off on a campaign against the Poles. They besiegeDubno Castle where, surrounded by the Cossacks and short of supplies, the inhabitants begin to starve. One night aTatar woman comes to Andriy and rouses him. He finds her face familiar and then recalls she is the servant of the Polish girl he was in love with. She advises him that all are starving inside the walls. He accompanies her through a secret passage starting in the marsh that goes into the monastery inside the city walls. Andriy brings loaves of bread with him for the starving girl and her mother. He is horrified by what he sees and in a fury of love, forsakes his heritage for the Polish girl.
Meanwhile, several companies of Polish soldiers march into Dubno to relieve the siege, and destroy a regiment of Cossacks. A number of battles ensue. Taras learns of his son's betrayal from Yankel the Jew, whom he saved earlier in the story. During one of the final battles, he sees Andriy riding in Polish garb from the castle and has his men draw him to the woods, where he takes him off his horse. Taras bitterly scolds his son, telling him "I gave you life, I will take it", and shoots him dead.
Taras and Ostap continue fighting the Poles. Ostap is captured while his father is knocked out. When Taras regains consciousness he learns that his son was taken prisoner by the Poles. Yankel agrees to take Taras toWarsaw, where Ostap is held captive, hiding Taras in a cartload of bricks. Once in Warsaw, a group of Jews help Yankel dress Taras as a German count. They go into the prison to see Ostap, but Taras unwittingly reveals himself as a Cossack, and only escapes by use of a great bribe. Instead, they attend the execution the following day. During the execution, Ostap does not make a single sound, even while beingbroken on the wheel, but, disheartened as he nears death, he calls aloud on his father, unaware of his presence. Taras answers him from the crowd, thus giving himself away, but manages to escape.
Taras returns home to find all of his old Cossack friends dead and younger Cossacks in their place. He goes to war again. The new Hetman wishes to make peace with the Poles, which Taras is strongly against, warning that the Poles are treacherous and will not honour their words. Failing to convince the Hetman, Taras takes his regiment away to continue the assault independently. As Taras predicted, once the new Hetman agrees to a truce, the Poles betray him and kill a number of Cossacks. Taras and his men continue to fight and are finally caught in a ruined fortress, where they battle until the last man is defeated.
Taras is nailed and tied to a tree and set aflame. Even in this state, he calls out to his men to continue the fight, claiming that a newTsar is coming who will rule the earth. The story ends with Cossacks on theDniester River recalling the great feats of Taras and his unwavering Cossack spirit.
For reasons that are currently disputed, the 1842 edition was expanded by three chapters and included Russian nationalist themes. Potential reasons include a necessity to stay in line with the official tsarist ideology, as well as the author's changing political and aesthetic views (later manifested inDead Souls andSelected Passages from Correspondence with his Friends). The changes included three new chapters and a new ending (in the 1835 edition, the protagonist is not burned at the stake by the Poles).
Felix Dreizin and David Guaspari in theirThe Russian Soul and the Jew: Essays in Literary Ethnocentrism discussanti-Semitism, pointing out Gogol's attachment to "anti-Jewish prejudices prevalent in Russian and Ukrainian culture".[4] InLéon Poliakov'sThe History of Antisemitism, the author states that "The 'Yankel' fromTaras Bulba indeed became thearchetypal Jew in Russian literature. Gogol painted him as supremely exploitative, cowardly, and repulsive, albeit capable of gratitude".[5] There is a scene inTaras Bulba where Jews are thrown into a river, a scene where Taras Bulba visits the Jews and seeks their aid, and reference by the narrator of the story that Jews are treated inhumanely.[6]
Following the1830–1831 November Uprising againstRussian imperial rule in the heartland of Poland –partitioned since 1795 – the Polish people became the subject of an official campaign of discrimination by the Tsarist authorities. "Practically all of the Russian government, bureaucracy, and society were united in one outburst against the Poles. The phobia that gripped society gave a new powerful push to the Russian national solidarity movement" – wrote historianLiudmila Gatagova.[7] It was in this particular context that many of Russia's literary works and popular media of the time becamehostile toward the Poles in accordance with the state policy,[7][8] especially after the emergence of thePanslavist ideology, accusing them of betraying the "Slavic family".[9]According to sociologist and historian Prof.Vilho Harle,Taras Bulba, published only four years after the rebellion, was a part of this anti-Polish propaganda effort.[10] Inadvertently, Gogol's accomplishment became "an anti-Polish novel of high literary merit, to say nothing about lesser writers."[10]
As in other Russian novels of the era,Turks are treated as barbaric and uncivilized compared toEuropeans because of their nomadic nature.
Music
Film
[...] Victor Erlich briefly comments on the distinctions between the first and second versions, saying that only the second redaction forges an image of the Cossack as 'a paragon of civic virtue and a source of patriotic edification' for Soviet children, while the rhetoric of the first version is 'distinctly Cossack jingoism' [...].
Taras Bulba public domain audiobook atLibriVoxWith Fire and Sword byHenryk Sienkiewicz
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
