Archaeological evidence indicates that the Tamil Nadu region could have been inhabited more than 385,000 years ago byarchaic humans.[13][14] Artifacts recovered inAdichanallur by theArchaeological Survey of India (ASI) indicate a continuous history from more than 3,800 years ago.[15]Neolithiccelts with theIndus script dated between 1500 and 2000 BCE indicate the use of theHarappan language.[16][17] Excavations atKeezhadi have revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artefact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanisation in theIndo-Gangetic plain.[18] Further epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur useTamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 5th century BCE.[19] Potsherds uncovered from Keeladi indicate a script which might be a transition between the Indus Valley script and Tamil Brahmi script used later.[20]
TheSangam period lasted for about eight centuries, from 500 BCE to 300 CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the Sangam literature.[21][22] AncientTamilakam was ruled by atriumvirate of monarchical states,Cheras,Cholas andPandyas.[23] The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in theKaveri delta. The kings calledVendhar ruled over several tribes ofVelala (peasants), headed by theVelir chiefs.[24] The rulers patronised multiple religions includingvedic religion,Buddhism andJainism and sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work beingTolkāppiyam, a book of Tamil grammar.[25]
The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with theRomans.[26] Much of the commerce from the Romans and Han China were facilitated via seaports includingMuziris andKorkai withspices being the most prized goods along withpearls andsilk.[27][28] From 300 CE, the region was ruled by theKalabhras, warriors belonging to theVellalar community, who were once feudatories of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.[29] The Kalabhra era is referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.[30] The twin Tamil epicsCilappatikaram andManimekalai were written during the era.[31] Tamil classicTirukkural byThiruvalluvar, a collection of couplets is attributed to the same period.[32][33]
Around the 7th century CE, the Kalabhras were overthrown by the Pandyas and Cholas, who patronised Buddhism and Jainism before the revival ofSaivism andVaishnavism during theBhakti movement.[34] Though they existed previously, the period saw the rise of thePallavas in the sixth century CE underMahendravarman I, who ruled parts ofSouth India withKanchipuram as their capital.[35] The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of architecture: the massivegopuram, ornate towers at the entrance of temples, originated with thePallava architecture. They built the group ofrock-cut monuments inMahabalipuram and temples inKanchipuram.[36] Throughout their reign, the Pallavas remained in constant conflict with the Cholas and Pandyas. The Pandyas were revived byKadungon towards the end of the 6th century CE and with the Cholas in obscurity inUraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas.[37] ThePallavas were finally defeated by Chola princeAditya I in the 9th century CE.[38]
The Cholas became the dominant kingdom in the 9th century underVijayalaya Chola, who establishedThanjavur as Chola's new capital with further expansions by subsequent rulers. In the 11th century CE,Rajaraja I expanded the Chola Empire with conquests of entire Southern India and parts of present-daySri Lanka andMaldives, and increased Chola influence across theIndian Ocean.[39][40] Rajaraja brought in administrative reforms including the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual administrative units.[41] Under his sonRajendra Chola I, the Chola Empire reached its zenith and stretched as far asBengal in the north and across the Indian Ocean.[42] The Cholas built many temples in theDravidian style with the most notable being theBrihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, one of the foremost temples of the era built by Rajaraja, andGangaikonda Cholapuram, built by Rajendra.[43]
The Pandyas again reigned supreme early in the 13th century underMaravarman Sundara I.[44] They ruled from their capital ofMadurai and expanded trade links with other maritime empires.[45] During the 13th century,Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence. The Pandyas also built a number of temples including theMeenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai.[46]
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (14th–17th century CE)
Europeans started to establish trade centres from the 16th century along the eastern coast. ThePortuguese arrived in 1522 and built a port namedSão Tomé near present-dayMylapore in Madras.[59] In 1609, theDutch established a settlement inPulicat and theDanes had their establishment inTharangambadi.[60][61] On 20 August 1639, Francis Day of theBritish East India Company met with the Vijayanager emperorPeda Venkata Raya and obtained a grant for land on the Coromandel coast for their trading activities.[62][63][64] A year later, the company builtFort St. George, the first major English settlement in India, which became the nucleus of theBritish Raj in the region.[65][66] By 1693, theFrench established trading posts atPondichéry. In September 1746, the French captured Madras during theBattle of Madras.[67] The British regained control of Madras in 1749 through theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and resisted aFrench siege attempt in 1759.[68][69] The British and French competed to expand the trade which led toBattle of Wandiwash in 1760 as part of theSeven Years' War.[70] The Nawabs of the Carnatic surrendered much of their territory to the British East India Company in the north and bestowed tax revenue collection rights in the South, which led to constant conflicts with the Palaiyakkarars known as thePolygar Wars.Puli Thevar was one of the earliest opponents, joined later byRani Velu Nachiyar ofSivagangai andKattabomman of Panchalakurichi in the first series of Polygar wars.[71][72] TheMaruthu brothers along withOomaithurai, the brother of Kattabomman, formed a coalition withDheeran Chinnamalai and Kerala VarmaPazhassi Raja, which fought the British in the Second Polygar War.[73] In the later 18th century, theMysore kingdom captured parts of the region and engaged in constant fighting with the British which culminated in the fourAnglo-Mysore Wars.[74]
By the 18th century, the British had conquered most of the region and established theMadras Presidency with Madras as the capital.[75] After the defeat of Mysore in theFourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799 and the British victory in the second Polygar war in 1801, the British consolidated most of southern India into what was later known as theMadras Presidency.[76] On 10 July 1806, theVellore mutiny, which was the first instance of a large-scale mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company, took place inVellore Fort.[77][78] After theIndian Rebellion of 1857, theBritish Parliament passed theGovernment of India Act 1858, which transferred the governance of India from the East India Company to the British crown, forming theBritish Raj.[79]
After theIndependence of India in 1947, the Madras Presidency becameMadras state, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and parts ofAndhra Pradesh,Karnataka andKerala.Andhra state was split from the state in 1953 and the state was further reorganised when states were redrawn linguistically in1956 into the current shape.[85][86] On 14 January 1969, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country".[87][88] In 1965,agitations against theimposition of Hindi and in support of continuing English as a medium of communication arose which eventually led to English being retained as an official language of India alongside Hindi.[89] After independence, the economy of Tamil Nadu conformed to asocialist framework, with strict governmental control overprivate sector participation,foreign trade, andforeign direct investment. After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the economy of Tamil Nadu consistently exceeded national average growth rates from the 1970s, due toreform-oriented economic policies.[90] In the 2000s, the state has become one of the most urbanised states in the country with a higherHuman Development Index compared to national average.[91]
Western Ghats traverse along the western border of Tamil Nadu
The Western Ghats run south along the western boundary with the highest peak atDoddabetta (2,636 m (8,648 ft)) in theNilgiri Hills.[96][97] TheEastern Ghats run parallel to the Bay of Bengal along the eastern coast and the strip of land between them forms theCoromandel region.[98] They are a discontinuous range of mountains intersected byKaveri river.[99] Both mountain ranges meet at theNilgiri mountains which run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka, extending to the relatively low-lying hills of the Eastern Ghats on the western portion of the Tamil Nadu–Andhra Pradesh border.[100] TheDeccan Plateau is the elevated region bound by the mountain ranges and the plateau slopes gently from west to east resulting in major rivers arising in the Western Ghats and flowing east into the Bay of Bengal.[101][102][103] Thecoastline of Tamil Nadu is 1,076 km (669 mi) long, and is the second longest statecoastline in the country afterGujarat.[104] There arecoral reefs located in the Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep islands.[105] Tamil Nadu's coastline was permanently altered by theIndian Ocean tsunami in 2004.[106]
Geology
Tamil Nadu falls mostly in a region of low seismic hazard with the exception of the western border areas that lie in a low to moderate hazard zone; as per the 2002 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) map, Tamil Nadu falls in Zones II and III.[107] The volcanicbasalt beds of the Deccan plateau were laid down in the massiveDeccan Traps eruption, which occurred towards the end of theCretaceous period, between 67 and 66 million years ago.[108] Layer after layer was formed by the volcanic activity that lasted many years and when the volcanoes became extinct, they left a region of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table.[109] The predominant soils of Tamil Nadu arered loam,laterite,black,alluvial andsaline. Red soil, with a higher iron content, occupies a larger portion of the state and all the inland districts. Black soil is found inwestern Tamil Nadu and parts of the southern coast. Alluvial soil is found in the fertile Kaveri delta region, with laterite soil found in pockets, and saline soil across the coast where the evaporation is high.[110]
Climate
Climatic zones of India
The region has atropical climate and depends on monsoons for rainfall.[111] Tamil Nadu is divided into seven agro-climatic zones: northeast, northwest, west, southern, high rainfall, high altitude hilly, andKaveri delta.[112] Atropical wet and dry climate prevails over most of the inland peninsular region except for a semi-aridrain shadow east of the Western Ghats. Winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperatures averaging above 18 °C (64 °F); summer is exceedingly hot with temperatures in low-lying areas exceeding 50 °C (122 °F); and the rainy season lasts from June to September, with annual rainfall averaging between 750 and 1,500 mm (30 and 59 in) across the region. Once the dry northeast monsoon begins in September, most precipitation in India falls in Tamil Nadu, leaving other states comparatively dry.[113]
Ahot semi-arid climate predominates in the land east of the Western Ghats which includes inland south and south central parts of the state and gets between 400 and 750 millimetres (15.7 and 29.5 in) of rainfall annually, with hot summers and dry winters with temperatures around 20–24 °C (68–75 °F). The months between March and May are hot and dry, with mean monthly temperatures hovering around 32 °C (90 °F), with 320 millimetres (13 in) precipitation. Without artificial irrigation, this region is not suitable for agriculture.[114]
Thesouthwest monsoon from June to September accounts for most of the rainfall in the west of the region. The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon hits the Western Ghats from Kerala and moves northward along theKonkan coast, with precipitation on the western region of the state.[115] The lofty Western Ghats prevent the winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau; hence, the leeward region (the region deprived of winds) receives very little rainfall.[116][117] The Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon heads toward northeast India, picking up moisture from the Bay of Bengal. The Coramandel coast does not receive much rainfall from the southwest monsoon, due to the shape of the land.[118] The northern and eastern parts of Tamil Nadu receive most of their rains from thenortheast monsoon.[119]
The northeast monsoon takes place from November to early March, when the surfacehigh-pressure system is strongest.[120] TheNorth Indian Ocean tropical cyclones occur throughout the year in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, bringing devastating winds and heavy rainfall.[121][122] The annual rainfall of the state is about 945 mm (37.2 in) of which 48 per cent is through the northeast monsoon, and 52 per cent through the southwest monsoon. The state has only 3% of the water resources nationally and is entirely dependent on rains for recharging its water resources. Monsoon failures lead to acutewater scarcity andsevere drought.[123][124]
Chennai is the capital of the state and houses thestate executive,legislative andhead of judiciary.[160] The administration of the state government functions through various secretariat departments. There are 43 departments of the state and the departments have further sub-divisions which may govern various undertakings and boards.[161] The state is divided into 38districts, each of which is administered by aDistrict Collector, who is an officer of theIndian Administrative Service (IAS) appointed to the district by the Government of Tamil Nadu. For revenue administration, the districts are further subdivided into 87 revenue divisions administered by Revenue Divisional Officers (RDO) which comprise 310taluks administered byTahsildars.[162] The taluks are divided into 1349revenue blocks calledFirkas which consist of 17,680 revenue villages.[162] Thelocal administration consists of 15municipal corporations, 121municipalities and 528town panchayats in the urban areas, and 385panchayat unions and 12,618village panchayats, administered by Village Administrative Officers (VAO).[163][162][164]Greater Chennai Corporation, established in 1688, is the second oldest in the world and Tamil Nadu was the first state to establish town panchayats as a new administrative unit.[165][166][167][163]
TheMadras High Court was established on 26 June 1862 and is the highest judicial authority of the state with control over all the civil and criminal courts in the state.[176] It is headed by aChief Justice and has a bench at Madurai since 2004.[176]
TheTamil Nadu Police, established as Madras state police in 1859, operates under thehome ministry of the Government of Tamil Nadu and is responsible for maintaining law and order in the state.[177] As of 2023[update], it consists of more than 132,000 police personnel, headed by aDirector General of Police.[178][179] Women form 17.6% of the police force and specifically handleviolence against women through 222 special all-women police stations.[180][181][182] As of 2023[update], the state has 1854 police stations, the highest in the country, including 47 railway and 243 traffic police stations.[180][183] The traffic police under different district administrations are responsible for the traffic management in the respective regions.[184] The state is consistently ranked as one of thesafest for women with a crime rate of 22 per 100,000 in 2018.[185]
Elections in India are conducted by theElection Commission of India, an independent body established in 1950.[186] Politics in Tamil Nadu was dominated by national parties till the 1960s. Regional parties have ruled ever since. TheJustice Party andSwaraj Party were the two major parties in the erstwhile Madras Presidency.[187] During the 1920s and 1930s, theSelf-Respect Movement, spearheaded byTheagaroya Chetty andE. V. Ramaswamy (commonly known as Periyar), emerged in the Madras Presidency and led to the formation of the Justice party.[188] The Justice Party eventually lost the1937 elections to theIndian National Congress andChakravarti Rajagopalachari became the chief minister of the Madras Presidency.[187] In 1944, Periyar transformed the Justice party into a social organisation, renaming the partyDravidar Kazhagam, and withdrew from electoral politics.[189]
Theanti-Hindi agitations led to the rise ofDravidian parties and the first such government was formed in1967.[194] In 1972, a split in the DMK resulted in the formation of theAll India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) led byM. G. Ramachandran.[195] These two Dravidian parties continued to dominate the electoral politics in the state with the national parties often aligning as junior partners.[196]M. Karunanidhi, who became the leader of the DMK after Annadurai andJ. Jayalalithaa, who succeeded as the leader of AIADMK after M. G. Ramachandran dominated the state politics from the 1980s to early 2010s, serving as chief ministers combined for over 32 years.[192][197]
As per the2011 census, Tamil Nadu had a population of 72.1 million and is theseventh most populous state in India.[1] The population is projected to be 76.8 million in 2023 and to grow to 78 million by 2036.[202] Tamil Nadu is one of the most urbanised states in the country with more than 48.4 per cent of the population living in urban areas.[91] As per the 2011 census, thesex ratio was 996 females per 1000 males, higher than the national average of 943.[203] The sex ratio at birth was recorded as 954 during the fourthNational Family Health Survey (NFHS) in 2015–16 which reduced further to 878 in the fifth NFHS in 2019–21, rankingthird worst amongst states.[204] As per the 2011 census,Literacy rate was 80.1%, higher than the national average of 73%.[205] The literacy rate was estimated to be 82.9% as per the 2017National Statistical Commission (NSC) survey.[206] As of 2011[update], there were about 23.17 million households with 7.42 million children under the age of six.[207] A total of 14.4 million (20%) belonged toScheduled Castes (SC) and 0.8 million (1.1%) toScheduled tribes (ST).[208]
The capital of Chennai is themost populous urban agglomeration in the state with more than 8.6 million residents, followed by Coimbatore, Madurai,Tiruchirappalli andTiruppur, respectively.[213]
The state is home to a diverse population of ethno-religious communities.[215][216] According to the 2011 census,Hinduism is followed by 87.6% of the population.Christians form the largestreligious minority in the state with 6.1% of the population;Muslims form 5.9% of the population.[217]
TheLGBT rights in Tamil Nadu are among the most progressive inIndia.[243][244] In 2008, Tamil Nadu set up the Transgender welfare board and was the first to introduce a transgender welfare policy, wherein transgender people can avail freesex reassignment surgery in government hospitals.[245]Chennai Rainbow Pride has been held in Chennai annually since 2009.[246] In 2021, Tamil Nadu became the first Indian state to ban conversion therapy andforced sex-selective surgeries on intersex infants, following the directions of the Madras High Court.[247][248][249] In 2019, the Madras High Court ruled that the term "bride" under theHindu Marriage Act, 1955 includes trans-women, thereby legalising marriage between a man and a transgender woman.[250]
Tamil women traditionally wear asari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 5 to 9 yards (4.6 to 8.2 m) in length and 2 to 4 feet (0.61 to 1.22 m) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff, as according to Indian philosophy, the navel is considered as the source of life and creativity.[251][252] Ancient Tamil poetry such as theCilappadhikaram, describes women in exquisite drapery or sari.[253] Women wear colourfulsilk saris on special occasions such as marriages.[254] The men wear adhoti, a 4.5 metres (15 ft) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes. It is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.[255] A colourfullungi with typicalbatik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside.[256] People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.[256] TheKanchipuram silk sari is a type ofsilksari made in theKanchipuram region in Tamil Nadu and these saris are worn as bridal and special occasion saris by most women in South India. It has been recognised as aGeographical indication by the Government of India in 2005–2006.[257][258]Kovai Cora is a type ofcotton sari made in the Coimbatore.[258][259]
Rice is the diet staple and is served withsambar,rasam, andporiyal as a part of a Tamil meal.[260]Coconut and spices are used extensively in Tamil cuisine. The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes made of rice,legumes, andlentils with its distinct aroma and flavour achieved by the blending offlavourings and spices.[261][262] The traditional way of eating a meal involves being seated on the floor, having the food served on abanana leaf,[263] and using clean fingers of the right hand to take the food into the mouth.[264] After the meal, the fingers are washed; the easily degradable banana leaf is discarded or becomes fodder for cattle.[265] Eating on banana leaves is a custom thousands of years old, imparts a unique flavour to the food, and is considered healthy.[266]Idli,dosa,uthappam,pongal, andpaniyaram are popular breakfast dishes in Tamil Nadu.[267]Palani Panchamirtham,Ooty varkey,Kovilpatti Kadalai Mittai,Manapparai Murukku andSrivilliputhur Palkova are unique foods that have been recognised asGeographical Indications.[268]
Tamil Nadu has an independentliterary tradition dating back over 2500 years from the Sangam era.[7] Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as theTamil Sangams, the earliest of which, according to legend, were held on a now vanishedcontinent far to the south of India.[269][270][271] This includes the oldest grammatical treatise,Tolkappiyam, and the epicsCilappatikaram andManimekalai.[272] The earliestepigraphic records found on rock edicts andhero stones date from around the 3rd century BCE.[273][274] The available literature from the Sangam period was categorised and compiled into two categories based roughly on chronology: thePatiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku consisting ofEṭṭuttokai and thePattupattu, and thePatiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku. The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the 13th-century grammar bookNaṉṉūl based on theTolkāppiyam. Tamil grammar consists of five parts, namelyeḻuttu,sol,poruḷ,yāppu,aṇi.[275][276]Tirukkural, a book on ethics byThiruvalluvar, is amongst the most popular works of Tamil literature.[277]
Dravidian architecture is the distinct style of rock architecture in Tamil Nadu.[291] In Dravidian architecture, the temples consisted of porches ormantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum, gate-pyramids orgopurams in quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple, andpillared halls used for many purposes. These features are the invariable accompaniments of these temples. Besides these, a South Indian temple usually has atank called thekalyani orpushkarni.[292] The gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of the temple forms a prominent feature ofkoils andHindu temples of the Dravidian style.[293] They are topped by thekalasam, a bulbous stonefinial and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.[294] The gopuram's origins can be traced back to thePallavas who built the group of monuments inMahabalipuram andKanchipuram.[36] TheCholas later expanded the same and by thePandya rule in twelfth century, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance.[295][296] Thestate emblem also features theLion Capital of Ashoka with an image of a Gopuram on the background.[297]Vimanam are similar structures built over thegarbhagriha or inner sanctum of the temple but are usually smaller than the gopurams in the Dravidian architecture with a few exceptions including theBrihadisvara Temple inThanjavur.[298][299]
TheMugal influence in medieval times and theBritish influence later gave rise to a blend ofHindu,Islamic andGothic revival styles, resulting in the distinctIndo-Saracenic architecture. Several buildings and institutions built during the British era followed the style.[300][301] By the early 20th century,art deco made its entry in the urban landscape.[302] After Indian Independence, Tamil architecture witnessed a rise inModernism with the transition from lime-and-brick construction toconcrete columns.[303]
Tamil Nadu is a major centre for music, art and dance in India.[304] Chennai is called the cultural capital of South India.[305] In the Sangam era, art forms were classified into:iyal (poetry),isai (music) andnadakam (drama).[306]Bharatanatyam is a classical dance form that originated in Tamil Nadu and is one of the oldest dances of India.[307][308][309] Other regional folk dances includeKarakattam,Kavadi,Koodiyattam,Oyilattam,Paraiattam andPuravaiattam.[310][311][312][313] The dance, clothing, and sculptures of Tamil Nadu exemplify the beauty of the body and motherhood.[314]Koothu is an ancient folk art, where artists tell stories from the epics accompanied by dance and music.[315][316]
The ancient Tamil country had its ownsystem of music called Tamil Pannisai described by Sangam literature such as theSilappatikaram.[317] APallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.[318] There are many traditional instruments from the region dating back to the Sangam period such asparai,tharai,yazh andmurasu.[319][320]Nadaswaram, areed instrument that is often accompanied by thethavil, a type ofdrum instrument, are the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings.[321]Melam is a group ofmadhalams and other similar percussion instruments from the ancient Tamilakam which are played during events.[322] The traditional music of Tamil Nadu is known asCarnatic music, which includes rhythmic and structured music by composers such asMuthuswami Dikshitar.[323]Gaana, a combination of various folk musics, is sung mainly in the working-class area of North Chennai.[324]
The state is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions which engage in arts research and are major tourist attractions.[325] Established in the early 18th century, theGovernment Museum and theNational Art Gallery are amongst the oldest in the country.[326] The museum inside the premises of Fort St. George maintains a collection of objects of the British era.[327] The museum is managed by theArchaeological Survey of India, and has in its possession the firstFlag of India hoisted atFort St George after the declaration of India's Independence on15 August 1947.[328]
Tamil Nadu is also home to the Tamil film industry nicknamed as "Kollywood" and is one of the largest industries of film production in India.[329][330] The termKollywood is a blend ofKodambakkam and Hollywood.[331] The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first talkie was a multilingual film,Kalidas, which was released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after India's first talking pictureAlam Ara.[332][333]Samikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of "Tent Cinema" in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films. The first of its kind was established in Madras, called "Edison's Grand Cinemamegaphone".[334][335][336]
Festivals
Jallikattu, a traditional bull taming event held duringPongal festivities
Pongal is a major and multi-dayharvest festival celebrated byTamils.[337] It is observed in the month of Thai according to theTamil solar calendar and usually falls on 14 or 15 January.[338] It is dedicated to theSurya, the Sun God and the festival is named after the ceremonial "Pongal", which means "to boil, overflow" and refers to the traditional dish prepared from the new harvest of rice boiled in milk withjaggery offered to Surya.[339][340][341] Mattu Pongal is meant for celebration ofcattle when the cattle are bathed, their horns polished and painted in bright colours, garlands of flowers placed around their necks and processions.[342]Jallikattu is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape.[343]
Tamils decorate their homes with colourful geometric designs calledkolam made from rice powder[344]
Puthandu is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on theTamil calendar. The festival date is set with the solar cycle of the solarHindu calendar, as the first day of the Tamil monthChithirai and falls on or about 14 April every year on theGregorian calendar.[345]Karthikai Deepam is a festival of lights that is observed on thefull moon day of theKartika month, called theKartika Pournami, falling on theGregorian months of November or December.[346][347]Thaipusam is a Tamil festival celebrated on the first full moon day of the Tamil month of Thai coinciding withPusam star and dedicated to lordMurugan.Kavadi Aattam is a ceremonial act of sacrifice and offering practiced by devotees which is a central part of Thaipusam and emphasises debt bondage.[348][349]Aadi Perukku is a Tamil cultural festival celebrated on the 18th day of the Tamil month ofAdi which pays tribute towater's life-sustaining properties. The worship ofAmman andAyyanar deities are organised during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare.[322]Panguni Uthiram is marked on thepurnima (full moon) of the month ofPanguni and celebrates the wedding of various Hindu gods.[350]
The economy of the state consistently exceeded national average growth rates, due toreform-oriented economic policies in the 1970s.[355] As of December 2023[update], Tamil Nadu'sGSDP was₹27.22 trillion (US$320 billion),second highest amongst Indian states, which had grown significantly from₹2.19 trillion (US$26 billion) in 2004.[356] The per-capitaNDSP is₹315,220 (US$3,700).[357] Tamil Nadu is the most urbanised state in India.[358] Though the state had the lowest percentage of people under the poverty line, rural unemployment rate is considerably higher at 47 per thousand compared to the national average of 28.[212][359] As of 2020[update], the state had the most number of factories at 38,837 units with an engaged work-force of 2.6 million.[360][361]
As of 2022[update], the state is amongst the majorInformation technology (IT) exporters of India with a value of₹576.87 billion (US$6.8 billion).[367][368] Established in 2000,Tidel Park in Chennai was amongst the first and largest IT parks in Asia.[369] The presence ofSEZs and government policies have contributed to the growth of the sector which has attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country.[370][371] In the 2020s, Chennai has become a major provider ofSaaS and has been dubbed the "SaaS Capital of India".[372][373]
Arjun battle tanks are manufactured byAVANI in Chennai
Manufacturing in various sectors is governed by the state owned industrial corporationTamil Nadu Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO) apart from central government owned companies. Electronics hardware is a major manufacturing industry with an output of $5.37 billion in 2023, largest amongst Indian states.[383][384] A large number of automotive companies have their manufacturing bases in the state with theautomotive industry in Chennai accounting for more than 35% of India's overall automotive components and automobile output, earning the nickname "Detroit of India".[385][386][387] TheIntegral Coach Factory in Chennai manufactures railway coaches and other rolling stock forIndian Railways.[388]
Another major industry is textiles with the state being home to more than half of the operating fiber textile mills in India.[389][390] Coimbatore is often referred to as theManchester ofSouth India due to its cotton production and textile industries.[391] As of 2022[update], Tiruppur exported garments worth US$480 billion, contributing to nearly 54% of the all the textile exports from India and the city is known as theknitwear capital due to its cotton knitwear export.[392][393] As of 2015[update], the textile industry in Tamil Nadu accounts for 17% of the total invested capital in all the industries.[394] As of 2021[update], 40% of leather goods exported from India worth₹92.52 billion (US$1.1 billion) are being manufactured in the state.[395] The state supplies two-thirds of India's requirements of motors and pumps, and is one of the largest exporters ofwet grinders with "Coimbatore Wet Grinder", a recognisedGeographical indication.[396][397]
Rice is the staple food grain and the state is one of the largest producers in India
Agriculture contributes 13% to the GSDP and is a major employment generator in rural areas.[364] As of 2022[update], the state had 6.34 million hectares under cultivation.[403][404]Rice is the staple food grain with the state being one of the largest producers in India with an output of 7.9 million tonnes in 2021–22.[405] The Kaveri delta region is known as theRice Bowl of Tamil Nadu.[406] Among non-food grains,sugarcane is the major crop with an annual output of 16.1 million tonnes in 2021–22.[407] The state is a producer ofspices and is the top producer ofoil seeds,tapioca,cloves andflowers in India.[408] The state accounts for 6.5% of fruit and 4.2% of vegetables production in the country.[409][410] The state is a leading producer ofbanana andmango with more than 78% of the area under fruit cultivation.[411] As of 2019[update], the state was the second largest producer in India ofnatural rubber andcoconuts.[412]Tea is a popular crop in hill-stations with the state being a major producer of a unique flavouredNilgiri tea.[413][414]
As of 2022[update], the state is the largest producer in India ofpoultry andeggs with an annual production of 20.8 billion units, contributing to more than 16% of the national output.[415] The state has a fishermen population of 1.05 million and the coast consists of 3 major fishing harbors, 3 medium fishing harbors and 363 fish landing centres.[416] As of 2022[update], the fishing output was 0.8 million tonnes with a contribution of 5% to the total fish production in India.[417] Aquaculture includesshrimp,sea weed,mussel,clam andoyster farming across more than 6000 hectares.[418]M. S. Swaminathan, known as the "father of the IndianGreen Revolution" was from Tamil Nadu.[419]
Infrastructure
Water supply
Kaveri river is one of the major water sources in the state
Tamil Nadu accounts for nearly 4% of the land area and 6% of the population of India, but has only 3% of the water resources of the country. The per capita water availability is 800 m3 (28,000 cu ft) which is lower than the national average of 2,300 m3 (81,000 cu ft).[420] The state is dependent on the monsoons for replenishing the water resources. There are 17 major river basins with 61 reservoirs and about 41,948 tanks with a total surface water potential of 24,864 million cubic metres (MCM), 90% of which is used forirrigation. The utilisable groundwater recharge is 22,423 MCM.[420] The major rivers includeKaveri,Bhavani,Vaigai andThamirabarani. With most of the rivers originating from other states, Tamil Nadu depends on neighbouring states for considerable quantum of water which has often led todisputes.[421] The state has 116large dams.[422] Apart from the rivers, the majority of the water comes from rainwater stored in more than 41,000tanks and 1.68 millionwells across the state.[403]
Water supply and sewage treatment are managed by the respective local administrative bodies such as theChennai MetroWater Supply and Sewage Board in Chennai.[423][424]Desalination plants including the country's largest atMinjur provide alternative means of drinking water.[425] As per the 2011 census, only 83.4% of the households have access to safe drinking water, less than the national average of 85.5%.[426] Water sources are also threatened byenvironmental pollution and effluent discharge from industries.[427]
Health and sanitation
TheGeneral Hospital in Chennai was established on 16 November 1664 and was the first major hospital in India
The state is one of theleading states in terms of sanitation facilities with more than 99.96% of people having access to toilets.[428] The state has robust health facilities and ranks higher in all health related parameters such as high life expectancy of 74 years (sixth) and 98.4%institutional delivery (second).[211][429] Of the three demographically related targets of theMillennium Development Goals set by theUnited Nations and expected to be achieved by 2015, Tamil Nadu achieved the goals related to improvement of maternal health and of reducing infant mortality and child mortality by 2009.[430][431]
The health infrastructure in the state includes both government-run and private hospitals. As of 2023[update], the state had 404 public hospitals, 1,776 public dispensaries, 11,030 health centres and 481 mobile units run by the government with a capacity of more than 94,700 beds.[432][433] TheGeneral Hospital in Chennai was established on 16 November 1664 and was the first major hospital in India.[434] The state government administers freepolio vaccine for eligible age groups.[435] Tamil Nadu is a major centre for medical tourism and Chennai is termed as "India's health capital".[436]Medical tourism forms an important part of the economy with more than 40% of total medical tourists visiting India making it to Tamil Nadu.[437]
Communication
Tamil Nadu is one of four Indian states connected byundersea fibre-optic cables.[438][439][440] As of 2023[update], four mobile phone service companies operateGSM networks includingBharti Airtel,BSNL,Vodafone Idea andReliance Jio offering4G and5G mobile services.[441][442] Wireline and broadband services are offered by five major operators and other smaller local operators.[442] Tamil Nadu is amongst the states with a high internet usage and penetration.[443] In 2018, the state government unveiled a plan to lay 55,000 km (34,000 mi) ofoptical fiber across the state to provide high-speed internet.[444]
Power and energy
Kudankulam, the largest nuclear power station in India
Electricity distribution in the state is done by theTamil Nadu Electricity Board headquartered at Chennai.[445] As of 2023[update], the average daily consumption is 15,000 MW. Only 40% of the power is generated locally, with the remaining 60% met through purchases.[446] As of 2022[update], the state was the fourth largest power consumer with a per capita availability of 1588.7 Kwh.[447][448] As of 2023[update], the state has thethird highest installed power capacity of 38,248 MW with 54.6% from renewable resources.[449][450]Thermal power is the largest contributor with more than 10,000 MW.[449] Tamil Nadu is the only state with two operationalnuclear power plants. The plant atKalpakkam is the first fully indigenous nuclear power station in India. TheKudankulam Nuclear Power Plant is the largest nuclear power station in India. It generates nearly one-third of the total nuclear power generated in the country.[451][452][453] Tamil Nadu has the largest established wind power capacity in India with over 8,000 MW, mostly based out of two regions,Palghat Gap andMuppandal. The latter is one of thelargest operational onshore wind farms in the world.[454]
Media
Headquarters ofSun Network, India's largest private TV broadcaster
Newspaper publishing started in the state started with the launch of the weeklyThe Madras Courier in 1785.[455] It was followed by the weekliesMadras Gazette andGovernment Gazette in 1795.[456][457]The Spectator, founded in 1836 was the first English newspaper to be owned by an Indian and became the first daily newspaper in 1853.[458][459] The first Tamil newspaper,Swadesamitran was launched in 1899.[460][461] The state has a number of newspapers and magazines published in various languages including Tamil, English and Telugu.[462] The major dailies with more than 100,000 circulation per day includeThe Hindu,Dina Thanthi,Dinakaran,The Times of India,Dina Malar, andThe Deccan Chronicle.[463] Several periodicals and local newspapers prevalent in select localities also bring out editions from multiple cities.[464]
Government-runDoordarshan broadcasts terrestrial andsatellite television channels from its Chennai centre set up in 1974.[465]DD Podhigai, Doordarshan's Tamil language regional channel was launched on 14 April 1993.[466] There are more than 30 private satellite television networks includingSun Network, one of India's largest broadcasting companies is the state, established in 1993.[467] The cable TV service is entirely controlled by the state government whileDTH andIPTV is available via various private operators.[468][469]Radio broadcasting began in 1924 by the Madras Presidency Radio Club.[470]All India Radio was established in 1938.[471] There are manyAM andFM radio stations operated byAll India Radio,Hello FM,Suryan FM,Radio Mirchi,Radio City andBIG FM among others.[472][473] In 2006, the government of Tamil Nadu distributed free televisions to all families, which has led to high penetration of television services.[474][475] From the early 2010s,Direct to Home has become increasingly popular replacing cable television services.[476]Tamil television serials form a major prime time source of entertainment.[477]
Others
Fire services are handled by theTamil Nadu Fire and Rescue Services which operates 356 operating fire stations.[478] Postal service is handled byIndia Post, which operates more than 11,800 post offices in the state.[479] The first post office was established at Fort St. George on 1 June 1786.[480]
Tamil Nadu has an extensive road network covering about 271,000 km as of 2023 with a road density of 2,084.71 kilometres (1,295.38 mi) per 1000 km2 which is higher than the national average of 1,926.02 kilometres (1,196.77 mi) per 1000 km2.[481] TheHighways Department (HD) of the state was established in April 1946 and is responsible for construction and maintenance ofnational highways, state highways, major district roads and other roads in the state.[482] It operates through eleven wings with 120 divisions and maintains 73,187 kilometres (45,476 mi) of highways in the state.[483][484]
There are 48 National Highways in Tamil Nadu, totalling 6,805 kilometres (4,228 mi) in length. The National Highways Wing of the state highways department, established in 1971, is responsible for the maintenance of National Highways, as laid down byNational Highways Authority of India (NHAI).[485][486] There are alsostate highways, totalling 6,805 kilometres (4,228 mi) long, which connectdistrict headquarters, important towns and national highways in the state.[487][484] As of 2020, 32,598 buses are operated with the state transport units operating 20,946 buses along with 7,596 private buses and 4,056 mini buses.[488]Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation (TNSTC), established in 1947 when private buses operating inMadras presidency were nationalised, is the primarypublic transport bus operator in the state.[488] It operates buses along intra and inter state bus routes, as well as city routes with eight divisions including theState Express Transport Corporation Limited (SETC) which runs long-distance express services. Metropolitan Transport Corporation in Chennai and State Express Transport Corporation.[488][489] As of 2020, Tamil Nadu had 32.1 million registered vehicles.[490]
Tamil Nadu is one of the most literate states in India, with a literacy rate estimated to be 82.9% as per the 2017 National Statistical Commission survey, higher than the national average of 77.7%.[206][519] The state had seen one of the highest literacy growth since the 1960s due to themidday meal scheme introduced on a large scale by K. Kamaraj to increase school enrolment.[520][521][522] The scheme was further upgraded in 1982 to "Nutritious noon-meal scheme" to combatmalnutrition.[523][524] As of 2022[update], the state has one of the highest enrolment to secondary education at 95.6%, far above the national average of 79.6%.[525]An analysis of primary school education byPratham showed a low drop-off rate but poor quality of education compared to certain other states.[526]
As of 2022[update], the state had over 37,211 government schools, 8,403 government-aided schools and 12,631 private schools which educate 5.47 million, 2.84 million, and 5.69 million students respectively.[527][528] There are 3,12,683 teachers with 80,217 teachers in government-aided schools with an average teacher-pupil ratio of 1:26.6.[529] Public schools are all affiliated with theTamil Nadu State Board, while private schools may be affiliated with either of Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education,Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE),Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (ICSE) orNational Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS).[530] School education starts with two years of kindergarten from age three onwards and then follows the Indian10+2 plan, ten years of school and two years of higher secondary education.[531]
As of 2023[update], the state has 4,622 public libraries.[550] Established in 1896,Connemara Public Library is one of the oldest and is amongst the fourNational Depository Centres in India that receive a copy of all newspapers and books published in the country. TheAnna Centenary Library is the largest library in Asia.[551][552] There are many research institutions spread across the state.[553] Chennai book fair is an annual book fair organised by the Booksellers and Publishers Association of South India (BAPASI) and is typically held in December–January.[554]
With its diverse culture and architecture and varied geographies, Tamil Nadu has a robust tourism industry. In 1971, theGovernment of Tamil Nadu established theTamil Nadu Tourism Development Corporation, which is the nodal agency responsible for the promotion oftourism and development of tourist related infrastructure in the state.[555] It is managed by theTourism,Culture and Religious Endowments Department.[556] The tag line "Enchanting Tamil Nadu" was adopted in the tourism promotions.[557][558] In the 21st century, the state has been amongst the top destinations for domestic and international tourists.[558][559] As of 2020[update], Tamil Nadu recorded the most tourist foot-falls with more than 140.7 million tourists visiting the state.[560]
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