Syrian groups opposed to Assad regime during the Syrian revolution
This article is about Syrian opposition during the Syrian civil war. For other historic opposition in Syria, seeSyrian opposition (disambiguation).
Parts of this article (those related to governance, territorial control, military forces and recognition, to better reflect the state of the, now former, opposition in the latter stages of the war) need to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(December 2024)
TheSyrian opposition was an umbrella term for the Syrian revolutionary organizations that opposedBashar al-Assad'sBa'athist regime during theSyrian Revolution andSyrian civil war. The opposition factions inSyria became active asgrassroots movements during the mass demonstrations against theBa'athist regime. TheFree Syrian Army (FSA) was the most prominent armed revolutionary group in the initial stages of the war; but it declined and became decentralized by 2015. By 2021,Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) had become the strongest armed faction within the Syrian opposition.
In July 2011, as the situationturned into a civil war, defectors from theSyrian Armed Forces formed theFree Syrian Army. In August 2011,dissident groups operating from abroad formed a coalition called theSyrian National Council. A broader organization, theSyrian National Coalition (SNC), was formed in November 2012. Although the groups based abroad established contact with those inSyria, the Syrian opposition suffered during the whole conflict from infighting and a lack of unified leadership, as well as lack of foreign aid as the war became deadlocked.
Syria has been an independent republic since 1946 after the expulsion of theFrench forces. For decades, the country was partially stable with a series of coups until theBa'ath Party seized power in Syria in 1963 after acoup d'état. In 1970,Hafez al-Assadseized power, beginning the rule of theAssad family. Syria was underemergency law from the time of the 1963 Syrian coup d'état until 21 April 2011, when it was rescinded byBashar al-Assad, Hafez's eldest surviving son and his successor aspresident of Syria.[6]
The rule of Assad dynasty was marked by heavy repression of secular opposition factions such as theArab nationalistNasserists andliberal democrats. The largest organised resistance to the Ba'athist rule has been theSyrian Muslim Brotherhood, which successfully capitalised on the widespread Sunni resentment against theAlawite hegemony. Anislamist uprising developed in Syria from 1976. In response, the Assad regime introduced Law No. 49 in 1980 which banned the movement and instituted death penalty of anyone accused of membership in the Brotherhood. The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood rose as the most powerful opposition force in Syria until it wasbrutally crushed in 1982.[7][8]
Prior to the civil war that started in 2011, "opposition" (Arabic:المعارضة,romanized: al-muʕāraḍat) referred to traditional political actors such as political exiles, the public platforms that had emerged during theDamascus Spring and those who later formed theDamascus Declaration alliance; that is, groups and individuals with a history of dissidence against the Syrian state.[9]
As therevolutionary wave commonly referred to as theArab Spring began to take shape in early 2011, Syrian protesters began consolidating opposition councils. Spontaneous protests became more planned and organized.[10] The uprising, from March 2011 until the start of August 2011, was characterized by a consensus for nonviolent struggle among the participants.[11]The opposition councils inside the country became known as theLocal Coordination Committees of Syria.[12][13]
TheIstanbul Meeting for Syria, the first convention of the Syrian opposition, took place on 26 April 2011, during the early phase of the civil uprising. There followed theAntalya Conference for Change in Syria orAntalya Opposition Conference, a three-dayconference of representatives of the Syrian opposition held from 31 May until 3 June 2011 inAntalya, Turkey. Organized byAmmar al-Qurabi'sNational Organization for Human Rights in Syria and financed by the wealthy Damascene Sanqar family, it led to a final statement refusing compromise or reform solutions, and to the election of a 31-member leadership.
After the Antalya conference, a follow-up meeting took place two days later inBrussels, then another gathering in Paris that was addressed byBernard-Henri Lévy, a French author who was involved at the same time in support for theLibyan uprising.[14] It took a number of further meetings inIstanbul andDoha before yet another meeting on 23 August 2011 inIstanbul set up a permanent transitional council in form of theSyrian National Council,[15][16] which received significant international support and recognition as a partner for dialogue. The Syrian National Council was recognized or supported in some capacity by at least 17member states of the United Nations, with three of those (France, the United Kingdom, and the United States) being permanent members of theSecurity Council.[17][18][19][20][21][22]
Opposition control (in green and white;Rojava control in yellow;Islamic State control in grey;Assad regime control in pink) in April 2016.Opposition control in August 2024.Areas under control of the former opposition groups as of December 2024.
TheNational Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces (commonly known as the Syrian National Coalition), a broader umbrella organization formed in November 2012, gained recognition as the "legitimate representative of the Syrian people" by theCooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG) and as a "representative of aspirations of Syrian people" by theArab League. TheFriends of Syria Group transferred its recognition from the Syrian National Council to the Syrian National Coalition.[23] The Syrian National Coalition subsequently took the seat of Syria in the Arab League, with the representative ofBashar Al-Assad's government suspended that year.[24] The Syrian National Council, initially a part of the Syrian National Coalition, withdrew on 20 January 2014 in protest at the decision of the coalition to attend theGeneva talks.[25] Despite tensions, the Syrian National Council retained a degree of ties with the Syrian National Coalition.
A July 2015 ORB International poll of 1,365 adults across all of Syria's 14governorates found that about 26 percent of the population supported the Syrian opposition (41 percent in the areas it controlled), compared to 47 percent who supported the Ba'athist government (73 percent in the areas it controlled), 35 percent who supported theAl-Nusra Front (58 percent in the areas it controlled), and 22 percent who supported theIslamic State (74 percent in the areas it controlled).[26] A March 2018 ORB International Poll with a similar method and sample size found that support had changed to 40% Syrian government, 40% Syrian opposition (in general), 15%Syrian Democratic Forces, 10% al-Nusra Front, and 4% Islamic State (crossover may exist between supporters of factions).[27]
While rebel forces initially made significant advances against government forces, theIranian andRussian interventions in support of the Assad regime shifted the balance of the conflict. Syrian rebel forces were also under attack by theIslamic State as the conflict became multi-sided. Ba'athist forces gradually recaptured most rebel strongholds except theIdlib Governorate andTurkish-occupied zones. A major battle between rebel groups and government forces took place inAleppo, which wasrecaptured by the regime in late 2016. In the meantime, Syrian opposition groups, including the Syrian National Coalition, tried to negotiate with the regime as part ofa peace process that failed to produce results. The Syrian National Coalition remained fraught with internal conflict and leadership problems.Qatar andSaudi Arabia competed for influence over it.[28] Eventually, the Istanbul-based SNC became essentially a platform forTurkish influence and lost much of its international clout.[29][30]
The Syrian opposition never had a definitive political structure. In December 2015, members of the Syrian opposition convened inRiyadh, Saudi Arabia: 34 groups attended the convention, which aimed to produce a unified delegation for negotiations with theSyrian government.[39] Notable groups present included:
Official logo of the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces
TheNational Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, commonly known as the Syrian National Coalition (SNC), is a coalition of opposition groups and individuals, mostly exilic, who support the Syrian revolutionary side and oppose the Assad government ruling Syria. It formed on 11 November 2012 at a conference of opposition groups and individuals held inDoha,Qatar. It has relations with other opposition organizations such as the Syrian National Council, the previous iteration of an exilic political body attempting to represent the grassroots movement; the union of the two was planned, but has failed to realize. Moderate Islamic preacherMoaz al-Khatib, who had protested on the Syrian street in the early nonviolent phase of the uprising, served a term as the president of the coalition, but soon resigned his post, frustrated with the gap between the body and the grassroots of the uprising inside Syria.[40]Riad Seif andSuheir Atassi, both of whom had also protested on the street in Syria early in the uprising, were elected as vice presidents. Mustafa Sabbagh is the coalition's secretary-general.[41]
Notable members of the Coalition include:
theAssyrian Democratic Organization: a party representing theAssyrian minority and long repressed by the Assad government, it has participated in opposition structures since the beginning of the conflict. Abdul-Ahad Astepho is a member of the SNC.[42][43]
theSyrian Democratic People's Party, a socialist party which played a "key role" in forming the SNC.[58] The Party's leaderGeorge Sabra (a secularist born into a Christian family) is the official spokesman of the SNC, and also ran for chairman.[59]
theSupreme Council of the Syrian Revolution, a Syrian opposition group supporting the overthrow of Bashar al-Assad's government. It grants local opposition groups representation in its national organization.
TheSyrian Democratic Council is considered an "alternative opposition" bloc.[71] Its leaders included former NCC members such asRiad Darar, a "key figure" in the Syrian opposition, andHaytham Manna, who resigned from the SDC in March 2016 in protest of its announcement of theNorthern Syria Federation.[72] The SDC was rejected by some other opposition groups due to its system of federalism.[73]
Muslim Brotherhood: Islamist party founded in 1930. The brotherhood was behind theIslamic uprising in Syria between 1976 until 1982. The party is banned in Syria and membership became acapital offence in 1980. The Muslim Brotherhood has issued statements of support for the Syrian uprising.[74][75] Other sources have described the group as having "risen from the ashes,"[76] "resurrected itself"[77] to be a dominant force in the uprising.[78] The Muslim Brotherhood has constantly lost influence with militants on the ground, who have defected from the Brotherhood affiliatedShields of the Revolution Council to theIslamic Front.[79]
Coalition of Secular and Democratic Syrians: a grouping of Syriansecular and democratic opposition members, which came about through the union of a dozen Muslim and Christian, Arab andKurd parties, who called the minorities of Syria to support the fight against the government ofBashar al-Assad.[80][81] This group, chaired byRanda Kassis,[82][83] has also called for military intervention in Syria, under the form of ano-fly zone similar to that ofKosovo, with a safe zone and cities.[84][85] Kassis, who chaired talks as part of theAstana Platform,[86] has expressed support for theRussian intervention in Syria.[87] Kassis' initiatives proved controversial among other members of the opposition, who considered them to be part of an "acceptable" opposition backed by Russia.[87][88]
Syrian Turkmen Assembly: An assembly ofSyrian Turkmens, formed in 2012, which constitutes a coalition of Turkmen parties and groups in Syria. It is against the partition of Syria after the collapse of Baath government. The common decision of Syrian Turkmen Assembly is:"Regardless of any ethnic or religious identity, a future in which everybody can be able to live commonly under the identity of Syrian is targeted in the future of Syria."[89] In 2019,Abdurrahman Mustafa, president of the Syrian Turkmen Assembly, became the president of the Turkish-supportedSyrian Interim Government. He also chaired theSyrian National Coalition between 2018 and 2019.
Syrian Turkmen National Bloc: An opposition party of Syrian Turkmens, which was founded in February 2012. The chairman of the political party is Yusuf Molla.
Syrian National Democratic Council: formed in Paris on 13 November 2011 during the Syrian civil war byRifaat al-Assad, uncle of Bashar al-Assad. Rifaat al-Assad has expressed the wish to replace Bashar al-Assad with the authoritarian state apparatus intact, and to guarantee the safety of government members, while also making vague allusions to a "transition."[94] Rifaat has his own political organisation, the United National Democratic Rally.[95]
Several political parties and organizations existed inside Syria, and they reached the dome of thePeople's Assembly. Among these parties are included:
ThePopular Front for Change and Liberation: The front was founded in August 2011 inDamascus.[102] It established in its national charter the launch of public freedoms, the start of a national dialogue, and work on drafting a new constitution. The Front participated in the2012 elections and achieving 5 seats in thePeople's Assembly.[103][104] Among the different parties united in the Front are:
Popular Will Party: Founded on August 21, 2012 byQadri Jamil. It is acommunist-associated Syrian political party that affirms the interests of the working class and other hard-working Syrians. They also fight for the recognition of them as a representative of these interests.[108]
The Popular Front for Change and Liberation decided to boycott the2016 elections because the regime had not upheld its promise to amend to the constitution.[109]
At a conference held in Istanbul on 19 March 2013 members of the National Coalition electedGhassan Hitto as prime minister of aninterim government for Syria, the Syrian Interim Government (SIG). Hitto has announced that atechnical government will be formed which will be led by between 10 and 12 ministers, with theFree Syrian Army choosing the Minister of Defense.[110] The SIG is based in Turkey. It has been the primary civilian authority throughout most of opposition-held Syria. Its system of administrative local councils operate services such as schools and hospitals in these areas, as well as the Free Aleppo University.[111][112] By late 2017, it presided over 12 provincial councils and over 400 elected local councils. It also operates a major border crossing between Syria and Turkey, which generates an estimated $1 million revenue each month.[111] It is internationally recognized by the European Union and the United States, among others. It maintains diplomatic ties with some non-FSA rebel groups, such asAhrar al-Sham, but has been in conflict with the more extremeTahrir al-Sham, which is one of the largest armed groups in Idlib Governorate.[111]
TheSyrian Salvation Government was an alternative government of the Syrian opposition seated withinIdlib Governorate, which was formed by the General Syrian Conference in September 2017.[113] The domestic group has appointed Mohammed al-Sheikh as head of the Government with 11 more ministers for Interior, Justice, Endowment, Higher Education, Education, Health, Agriculture, Economy, Social Affairs and Displaced, Housing and Reconstruction and Local Administration and Services. Al-Sheikh, in a press conference held at theBab al-Hawa Border Crossing has also announced the formation of four commissions: Inspection Authority, Prisoners and missing Affairs, Planning and Statistics Authority, and the Union of Trade Unions.[114] The founder of theFree Syrian Army, Col.Riad al-Asaad, was appointed as deputy prime minister for military affairs.[citation needed] The SSG is associated withHay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and not recognised by the rest of the opposition, which is in conflict with HTS.[114]
There was a sharp ideological divide between the two competing opposition civil authorities: The SIG espousessecular, moderate values and regularly participated in international peace talks; the SSG enforced a strict interpretation ofIslamic law and stringently rejected talks with the Syrian regime.[111]
TheAutonomous Administration of North and East Syria is an area that extends in northeastern Syria and includes parts of the governorates Al-Hasakah, Al-Raqqa, Aleppo and Deir ez-Zor.[115] The capital of the area isAin Issa, a town belonging to the Al-Raqqa governorate.[116] The Administration is headed bySiham Qaryo andFarid Atti with a joint head.[117] In January 2014, a number of parties, social actors, and civil institutions announced the formation of the Autonomous Administration to fill the power vacuum that existed at that time in the Syrian Kurdish regions.[118] Although its authority has not been recognized or authorized by any formal agreement involving the sovereign Syrian state or any international power, its presence in the region and its ability to wield power was unchallenged.[115]
This section needs to beupdated. The reason given is: Progress with the2024 Syrian opposition offensives. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(December 2024)
In April 2015, after theSecond Battle of Idlib, the interim seat of the Syrian Interim Government was proposed to be Idlib, in the Idlib Governorate. However, this move was rejected by theal-Nusra Front andAhrar al-Sham-ledArmy of Conquest, which between them controlled Idlib.[119] According to the Syrian National Coalition, in 2017 there were 404 opposition-aligned local councils operating in villages, towns, and cities controlled by rebel forces.[120] In 2016, the Syrian Interim Government became established within theTurkish-controlled areas.
During the civil war, the opposition worked to establish diplomatic relations with various countries and international organizations.Turkey recognized the Syrian opposition as the genuine Syrian Arab Republic and hosted several of its institutions on its territory. TheQatari government has also been a key ally in supporting the Syrian opposition's efforts to establish a new government.[123] The Syrian National Coalition was granted Syria's seat in the Arab League in 2013, but the next year it was decided that the seat would remain vacant until the opposition stabilized its institutions.[124] SNC representatives were allowed to participate in the Arab League's meetings on an exceptional basis.[125]France was one of the first Western countries to recognize the Syrian opposition and has maintained its support for the transitional government.[126] TheEuropean Union recognized theSyrian National Coalition as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people in 2012.[127]
During the civil war, the opposition as a whole was characterised as "terrorist" byIran,[128]Russia[129] and Syria.[130]
In December 2024, the AfghanTaliban Administration congratulated Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham on their victory over the Assad regime.[131]
Initially, theFree Syrian Army was perceived as the ultimate military force of the Syrian Opposition, but with the collapse of many FSA factions and emergence of powerful Islamist groups, it became clear to the opposition that only a cooperation of secular military forces and moderate Islamists could form a sufficient coalition to battle both the Syrian Government forces and radical Jihadists such asISIL and in some casesal-Nusra Front.
Free Syrian Army:Paramilitary that has been active during the Syrian civil war.[132][133] Composed mainly of defectedSyrian Armed Forces personnel,[134][135] its formation was announced on 29 July 2011 in a video released on the Internet by a uniformed group of deserters from the Syrian military who called upon members of the Syrian army to defect and join them.[136] The leader of the group, who identified himself as ColonelRiad al-Asaad, announced that the Free Syrian Army would work with demonstrators to bring down the system, and declared that all security forces attacking civilians are justified targets.[137][138] It has also been reported that many former Syrian Consulates are trying to band together a Free Syrian Navy from fishermen and defectors to secure the coast.[139]
Syrian Turkmen Brigades: An armed opposition structure of Syrian Turkmens fighting against Syrian Armed Forces. It is also the military wing of Syrian Turkmen Assembly. It is led by ColonelMuhammad Awad andAli Basher.
Syrian Free Army – Free Syrian Army unit trained by, and politically very close to, the United States. It remains the last unit in theAl-Tanf area, and functions as the de facto opposition government there.
Islamic Front: An Islamist rebel group formed in November 2013 and led byAhrar al-Sham.[140] It was always a loose alliance and was defunct by 2015.[141]
Syrian Islamic Liberation Front: The major rebel fighting coalition independent of the FSA in the period 2012–2013, including the moderate Islamist groupsSuqour al-Sham,Al-Tawhid Brigade andJaysh al-Islam, deploying up to half the opposition's fighting force. Its main members joined the Islamic Front in 2013.
Ammar Abdulhamid, leading Human-Rights Advocate, Founder ofTharwa Foundation, first Syrian to testify in front ofAmerican Congress 2006/2008, briefed Presidents of the United States, and called for Syria Revolution in 2006.[144]
Samar Yazbek, Syrian author and journalist. She was awarded the 2012PEN Pinter International Writer of Courage Award for her book,A Woman in the Crossfire: Diaries of the Syrian Revolution. She fled Syria in 2011 but continues to be an outspoken critic of the al-Assad government from abroad, from Europe and the US.
^Rpberts, David (2015).The Ba'th and the creation of Modern Syria. 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN: Routledge. pp. 9,19–20,115–116, 120.ISBN978-0-415-83882-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^"Libya to arm syrian rebels".The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney Morning Herald. 27 November 2011.Archived from the original on 12 August 2013. Retrieved8 August 2013.
Griswold, Eliza (17 December 2024)."Reasons to Leave Syria—and to Return".The New Yorker. Archived fromthe original on 17 December 2024.He wanted to see how Abu Mohammed al-Jolani, the head of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham—an Islamist group formerly linked to the Islamic State and Al Qaeda—and now the de-facto leader of Syria, behaved.
^Masi, Alessandria (9 March 2015)."Aleppo Battle: Al Qaeda's Jabhat Al-Nusra is Friend To Syrian Rebel Groups".International Business Times.Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved10 March 2015.In 2013, the Syrian opposition included a large number of Islamist brigades that were neither moderate nor jihadist but were aligned with the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, under an umbrella organization called the Commission of the Shields of the Revolution. In 2015, the brigades began to slowly disperse.
^Szmolk, Inmaculada (2017).Political Change in the Middle East and North Africa: After the Arab Spring. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 415–416.ISBN978-1-4744-1528 6.
^abAllsopp, Harriet; van Wilgenburg, Wladimir (2019).The Kurds of Northern Syria. Volume 2: Governance, Diversity and Conflicts. London; New York City; etc.:I.B. Tauris.ISBN978-1-83860-445-5
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