The Syriac Orthodox Church comprises 26 archdioceses and 13 patriarchal vicariates. It also has an autonomousmaphrianate based in India, theJacobite Syrian Christian Church.
The Syriac Orthodox Church became distinct in 512 when Severus, a leader who opposed theCouncil of Chalcedon, was chosen as patriarch after asynod was held atLaodicea, Syria. This happened afterEmperor Anastasius I removed the previous patriarch,Flavian II, who supported Chalcedon. Severus's later removal in 518 was not recognized by majority of the Syriac speakers in and out of Antioch,[24][25] and this led to the establishment of an independent Miaphysitepatriarchate headed by Severus. In the 6th century, a bishop namedJacob Baradaeus helped strengthen this Miaphysite patriarchate. Meanwhile, those who supported Council of Chalcedon formed what later became theGreek Orthodox Church of Antioch and theMaronite Church.
Syriac-speaking Christians have referred to themselves as "Sūryoyē/Ōromōyē/Ōṯurōyē" in nativeAramaic terms based on their ethnic identity.[26] In most languages, a unique name has long been used to distinguish the church from thepolity ofSyria. InArabic (the official language of Syria), the church is known as the "Kenissa Suryaniya" as the term "Suryani" identifies the Syriac language and people.Chalcedonians refer to the church as "Jacobite" (afterJacob Baradaeus) since the schism that followed theCouncil of Chalcedon in AD 451.[27] English-speaking historians identified the church as the "Syrian Church". The English term "Syrian" was used to describe the community of Syriacs in ancientSyria. In the 15th century, the term "Orthodox" (fromAncient Greek:ὀρθοδοξία,romanized: orthodoxía,lit.'correct opinion') was used to identify churches that practiced the set of doctrines believed by early Christians. Since 1922, the term "Syrian" started being used for things named after theSyrian Federation. Hence, in 2000, theHoly Synod ruled that the church be named as "Syriac Orthodox Church" after the Syriac language, the official liturgical language of the church.[28]
Although the church is notethnically exclusive, the main ethnic group in the community usually identifies asAssyrian and/orAramean,[29][30] which has resulted in internal conflicts.[31] "Suryoye" is the term used to identify the Syriacs in thediaspora.[32] Church traditions crystallized intoethnogenesis through the preservation of their stories and customs by the 12th century. Since the 1910s, the identity of Syriac Orthodoxy in theOttoman Empire was principally religious and linguistic.[33][34][35] The Syriac Orthodox identity included auxiliary cultural traditions of theAssyrian Empire andAramean kingdoms,[36][37][38] and was reflected as such in the works of historical figures such asMichael the Syrian.[39] Formation of identity was also influenced by biblical interpretation, leadership by clergymen,[40] and their political situation.[38]
In 1981, to address ongoing name conflicts in the diaspora, the Holy Synod stated that the church is known as the "Syrian Orthodox Church" (ʿIto Suryoyto Orthodoxoytho), its language the "Syriac language" (Leshono Suryoyo), and its people the "Suryoyo people" (ʿAmo Suryoyo).[41][b] In recent times, church hierarchy have generally supported an Aramean ideology out of an anti-Assyrian stance,[42] forming what is a sectarian and vocalanti-Assyrianism.[43]
In recent works,Assyrian-American historian Sargon Donabed has pointed out that parishes in the US were originally usingAssyrian designations in their official English names, also noting that in some cases those designations were later changed toSyrian and then toSyriac, while three parishes continued to useAssyrian designations.[44][45][46][47] Today, the Assyrian Orthodox Church of the Virgin Mary inParamus, New Jersey officially retains the Assyrian name in its parish.[48]
Given the antiquity of thebishopric of Antioch and the importance of the Christian community in the city of Antioch, a commercially significant city in the eastern parts of theRoman Empire, the First Council of Nicaea recognized the bishopric as one of the main regional primacies in Christendom, with jurisdiction over the administrativeDiocese of the Orient, thus laying the foundation for the creation of the "Patriarchate of Antioch and All of the East".[59][60] Because of the significance attributed to Ignatius of Antioch in the church, most of the Syriac Orthodox patriarchs since 1293 have used the name of Ignatius in the title of the patriarch preceding their own patriarchal name.[61]
Christological controversies that followed the Council of Chalcedon did not result in the development of a separate community for those who became Miaphysites, though it became the catalyst for the development of a unique Syriac Orthodox identity.[62][63] It later resulted in a long struggle for the patriarchate between those who accepted and those who rejected the council.[64] In 512, pro-Chalcedonian patriarchFlavian II of Antioch was deposed byEmperor Anastasius I,[65] and on 6 November 512, at the synod of Laodicea in Syria, Severus of Antioch, a notableMiapyhsite theologian, was elected and later consecrated on 16 November at the Great Church of Antioch.[65][66][67] In 518, he was exiled from Antioch[68] by the new emperor,Justin I, who tried to enforce a uniformChalcedonian doctrine throughout the empire.[69][70][71][72] Those who belonged to the pro-Chalcedonian party accepted newly appointed patriarchPaul the Jew. The Miaphysite patriarchate was thus forced to leave Antioch, with Severus the Great taking refuge inAlexandria. The non-Chalcedonian community was divided between "Severians" (followers of Severus), andJulianists (followers ofJulian of Halicarnassus), a division that remained unresolved until 527.[73] Severians continued to recognize Severus as the legitimate Miaphysite Patriarch of Antioch until his death in 538, and then proceeded to follow his successors.[74][75]
Jacob Baradaeus,bishop of Edessa, is credited for ordaining most of theMiaphysite hierarchy while facing heavy persecution in the sixth century.[76][77][78] In 544, Baradaeus ordainedSergius of Tella, continuing the non-Chalcedonian succession of patriarchs of theChurch of Antioch.[79] This was done in opposition to the Byzantine-backed patriarchate of Antioch held by the pro-Chalcedonian believers, leading to the Syriac Orthodox Church becoming popularly known as the Jacobite Church, while the Chalcedonian believers were known popularly asMelkites, derived from the Syriac word for king,malka (an implication of the Chalcedonian Church's relationship to the Roman emperor, later taken up by theMelkite Greek Catholic Church as an official name).[80] Due to numerous historical upheavals and hardships, the patriarchate of the Syriac Orthodox Church was relocated to various monasteries inMesopotamia for centuries.[81]John III of the Sedre was elected and consecrated Patriarch after the death ofAthanasius I Gammolo in 631 AD, followed by the fall ofRoman Syria and theMuslim conquest of the Levant. John and several bishops were summoned beforeEmirUmayr ibn Sad al-Ansari ofHims to engage in an open debate regarding Christianity and represent the entire Christian community, including non-Syriac Orthodox communities, such as Greek Orthodox Syrians.[82] The rise of Islam did not change the position of clergy in leading the church, and they acted as the leaders of their community.[83]
By the seventh century AD, the Syriac Orthodox identity gradually began to shift from a purely religious association to one considered ethnic, as the adoption ofEdessan Aramaic became one of its strongest features.[84][c] The eighth-centuryhagiographyLife of Jacob Baradaeus provides evidence of a definite denominational and social differentiation between the Chalcedonians and Miaphysites (Syriac Orthodox).[85] The longer hagiography indicates that the Syriac Orthodox, referred to asSuryoye Yaquboye (Syriac Jacobites), in the work, identified more closely with Jacob's story than with those of other saints.[86] TheCoptic historian and Miaphysite bishopSeverus ibn al-Muqaffa discusses the origins of the Jacobites and theirveneration of Jacob Baradaeus. He asserted that, unlike the Chalcedonian Christians (referred to as "Melkites"), Miaphysite Jacobites never compromised their orthodoxy to win the favor of the Byzantine emperors, as the Melkites had done.[87][88][89]
In the tenth century, after theByzantine reconquest ofCappadocia,Cilicia and Syria, the Byzantine emperor encouraged Syriac settlement of these newly conquered frontier lands, leading to a period of economic and intellectual flourishing for Syriac Orthodox communities from 950 to 1020.[90][91] The 65th patriarchJohn VII Sarigta and his two successors resided at theMonastery of Bārid, close toMelitene, one of many newly founded monasteries at the time, and Syriac Orthodox Christians were granted access to imperial positions.[92] The wealth and influence of the Syriac Orthodox communities then sparked conflicts with the Byzantine Church, which began to persecute Syriac Orthodox Christians, forcingPatriarch Dionysius IV to relocate the seat toAmida.[93]
Before the advent of theCrusades in the eleventh century, the Syriacs occupied much of the hill country of Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia)[94] and lived under the rule of theAbbasid Caliphate.[95] In Antioch, after the eleventh-century persecutions by the Byzantines, the Syriac Orthodox population was almost extinguished. Only one Jacobite church is recorded in Antioch in the first half of the twelfth century, leading Dorothea Weltecke to conclude that the Syriac Orthodox population was very low in this period in Antioch and its surroundings.[96]
This changed during the twelfth century when the Crusader states were established. Scholars agree generally that relations between the Syriac Orthodox and Latins inOutremer were positive.[97] The Syriac population in thePrincipality of Antioch grew, partly due to the influx of refugees, which was also reflected in the construction of two additional churches.[96] During this period, several Syriac Orthodox patriarchs visited Antioch, with some even establishing temporary residences there, and the Syriac Orthodox hierarchy in Antioch was open to accepting Latin supervision.[98] Nevertheless, they stayed officially independent, though they also engaged inecumenical dialogue with the Byzantines and Latins regarding Church union.[99][97][100]
In 1293, the patriarchal seat was moved from theMor Bar Sauma Monastery, where the patriarchs had resided since 1166,[102] to theMor Hananyo Monastery (Deyrulzafaran)[103] in southeasternAnatolia nearMardin, where it remained until 1933 before it was re-established inHoms, Syria, due to the adverse political situation in the newTurkish Republic. As theMongols took control ofBaghdad in 1258, and declared Islam the state religion in 1294, continuous persecution was rampant against the Christian populations of cities such asMosul andErbil.[104] The effect that these persecutions made it difficult to enforce ecclesiastical laws amongst church hierarchy, and made communal division more frequent among church adherents.[105]
Among the notable churchmen of the period,Moses of Mardin (fl. 1549;d. 1592) was a diplomat who represented the Syriac Orthodox Church inRome during the 16th century.[108]
By the early 1660s, 75% of the 5,000 Syriac Orthodox people ofAleppo had converted to Catholicism after the arrival of mendicant missionaries.[109] The Catholic missionaries sought to install a Catholic patriarch among the Jacobites and consecratedAndrew Akijan as the patriarch of the newly foundedSyriac Catholic Church.[109] ThePropaganda Fide and foreign diplomats pushed for Akijan to be recognized as the Jacobite patriarch. The Porte consented and warned the Syriac Orthodox that they would be considered enemies if they refused to recognize him.[110] Despite warnings and gifts to priests, frequent conflicts and violent disputes continued between the Catholic and Orthodox Syriacs.[110]
In 1662, the vacant Syriac Patriarchate aligned with the Catholic Church, but afterGregory Peter VI's death in 1702, the Catholic patriarchal line temporarily lapsed. It resumed in 1782 withMichael III Jarweh, leading to the formal establishment of theSyriac Catholic Church, while the non-Catholic faction maintained its separate patriarchate.[111]
Around 1665, manySaint Thomas Christians ofKerala, India, committed themselves in allegiance to the Syriac Orthodox Church, which established theMalankara Syrian Church. The Malankara Church, consolidated underMar Thoma I, welcomedGregorios Abdal Jaleel, who regularized the canonical ordination of Mar Thoma I as a native, democratically elected bishop of the Malabar Syriac Christians.[112]
In 1836, the reformation faction of the Saint Thomas Christians in India split from the Syriac Orthodox Church and formed theMar Thoma Syrian Church.[113] During this period, the positions ofpatriarch of Tur Abdin andmaphrian (the latter revived in the 1960s) had come to an end following different synods.[103]
In the middle of the century, missionary efforts began with Syriac Orthodox communities in Tur Abdin, although they were not as popular as inUrmia.[114] Students fromHarput were also attracted to the schools, and influenced the community in Tur Abdin.
In the 19th century, the various Syriac Christian denominations did not view themselves as part of a single ethnic group,[115] though intercommunity bonds within the church were strong.[103] The church was previously under the jurisdiction of theArmenians in theMillet system of theOttoman Empire due to both churches beingnon-Chalcedonian. However, following various inner church conflicts, namely a crisis in Jerusalem,[116] a series of petitions (often numbering into the thousands) would be made by the Syriac Orthodox underIgnatius Peter IV and its dioceses for a separate millet.[117] During theTanzimat reforms (1839–78), the Syriac Orthodox Church was granted independent status by gaining recognition as their own millet in 1873, apart from Armenians and Greeks.[118] However, conflicts with the Armenian millet would continue after the Syriac Orthodox Church was granted recognition.
In the late 19th century, the Syriac Orthodox community of the Middle East, primarily from the cities ofAdana and Harput, began the process of creating the Syriac diaspora, with theUnited States being one of their first destinations in the 1890s.[119] Later, the first Syriac Orthodox church in the United States was built inWorcester, Massachusetts.[44]
The1895–96 massacres in Turkey affected theArmenian and Syriac Orthodox communities when an estimated 105,000 Christians were killed.[120] By the end of the 19th century, 200,000 Syriac Orthodox Christians remained in the Middle East, primarily concentrated around Mor Hananyo Monastery, the patriarchal seat.[121]
In 1870, there were 22 Syriac Orthodox settlements in the vicinity ofDiyarbakır.[122] In the 1870–71 Diyarbakırsalnames, there were 1,434 Orthodox Syriacs in that city.[123][124] Internal rivalry within the Syriac Orthodox Church in Tur Abdin resulted in many conversions to its Uniate branch, the Syriac Catholic Church.[125]
On 10 December 1876, Ignatius Peter IV consecratedGeevarghese Gregorios of Parumala as metropolitan.[126] He had also worked to reform the Indian church after a long period of neglect, convening a synod in 1876 that reorganized communities into seven dioceses and establishing two councils.[127] Under Peter IV's patriarchate,Jules Ferrette of theAncient British Church was allegedly consecrated into the episcopacy for establishing an Oriental Orthodox mission in the West.[128][129]Joseph Rene Vilatte was also apparently consecrated as a bishop through theMalankara Church, presumably with Peter IV's blessing.[130]
The Ottoman authorities killed and deported Orthodox Syriacs, then looted and seized their properties.[131] Between 1915 and 1916, the Orthodox Syriac population inDiyarbakır province declined by 72%, and in the Mardin province by 58%.[132] Although they weren't as targeted as theArmenians, many were often killed indiscriminately, and among Syriac Christians, the Syriac Orthodox were hit the hardest by the genocide.[133] An estimated 90,000 were killed in the massacres and ensuing deportations.[134]
In 1924, the patriarchate of the church was relocated toHoms afterMustafa Kemal Atatürk expelled the Syriac Orthodox patriarch, who relocated the library of Mor Hananyo and settled inDamascus.[135][136] The Syriac Orthodox villages in Tur Abdin suffered from the 1925–26Kurdish rebellions and massiveexodus toLebanon, northernIraq and especiallySyria ensued.[137][138][134]
In the early 1920s, the city ofQamishli was built mainly by Syriac Orthodox refugees fleeingSayfo/the Assyrian genocide.[139] The remaining Syriac Orthodox community in Tur Abdin did not press for minority rights by the Turkish state under the leadership ofIgnatius Elias III, but in 1924/1925 he was forced to leave the country.[140]
Following Elias III's leadership,Ignatius Aphrem I ascended to the patriarchate. Under his patriarchal administration, he repudiated the clergy that claimed holy orders and apostolic succession through Ferrette and Vilatte.[141] These clergy would later repudiate Aphrem I's notice, and form theCatholicate of the West which was dissolved and continued as theBritish Orthodox Church.[142][141]
Then, under his administration, although Ignatius Aphrem I initially supported Assyrian identity during theParis Peace Conference, he changed this stance after theSimele massacre.[143][37] In a publication made in 1952, he officially rejected the label in favor of Aramean identity, stating that the use of the word 'Assyrian' for the language or the community contradicts historical truth and the traditions of the church.[144][145]
In 1959, the seat of the Syriac Orthodox Church was transferred to Damascus in Syria.[135][134] By the 1960s, Syriac Orthodox followers began to emigrate toSweden, with the majority of whom being from Tur Abdin.[37] In the mid-1970s, the estimate of Syriac Orthodox living in Syria was 82,000.[146] In 1977, the number of Syriac Orthodox followers in diaspora dioceses was 9,700 in the Diocese of Middle Europe and 10,750 in the Diocese of Sweden and surrounding countries.[147] Immigration to Europe increased following violence from theKurdish-Turkish conflict, increasing the strength of Syriac Orthodox communities in their dioceses.[148]
On 20 October 1987, Geevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala was declared a saint byIgnatius Zakka I Iwas, allowing additions to the diptychs.[149][150]
In 2000, asynod was convened and the church officially began to use "Syriac" in its name in English, reflecting the official language of the church and to disassociate from the Syrian republic, as inEnglish, citizens ofSyria are called asSyrians.[151] The church began the process of establishing parish councils within each diocese, and by-laws enacted by the synod atMor Mattai Monastery were updated.
During theSyrian Civil War, in 2012, sources within the church reported of an "ongoing ethnic cleansing of Christians" being carried out by theFree Syrian Army. Multiple Christians claimed to have been forced out of their homes; however, one Syriac leader clarified that the reports were unconfirmed.[152]
In another incident,Al-Arabiya reported thatAssad's government forces attacked and raided the historic Syriac OrthodoxSaint Mary Church of the Holy Belt in Homs;[153] however, official church sources within Syria maintained that it was the anti-government militias that used the church as a shield and later damaged its contents on purpose.[154][155] Al-Arabiya reports in 2012 stated that the Syrian government has been persecuting Christian community leaders by various means. In one instance, a Christian activist sympathetic to the opposition told the newspaper that one priest had been killed by regime forces, but later, state TV blamed the rebels for his death.[citation needed]
In April 2013, the Greek Orthodox and Syriac Orthodox archbishops of Aleppo,Paul Yazigi andYohanna Ibrahim, respectively, were reportedly kidnapped near Aleppo by an armed Chechen group.[156] Throughout the war, churches have been demolished byTurkistan Islamic Party in Syria fighters.[157]
The supreme head of the Syriac Orthodox Church is titled thepatriarch of Antioch, in reference to his titular claim to one of the five patriarchates of thepentarchy ofByzantine Christianity.[28][158] He possessesapostolic succession through Saint Peter according tosacred tradition.[159][160][161] Considered the "father of fathers", he must be an ordainedbishop. He is the general administrator to Holy Synod and supervises the spiritual, administrative, and financial matters of the church.[28] The patriarch oversees the church's external relations with other churches and signs documents related to church affairs such as agreements, treaties, contracts, and pastoral communiques likeencyclicals (also known as bulls) and pastoral letters.[162]
The wordmaphrian comes from theSyriac wordmafriano, meaning "one who fructifies".[163] Themaphrian orCatholicos of India is the second-highest rank in the Syriac Orthodox Church after the patriarch.[28][164] He is an important functionary in guiding the church when the patriarchate falls vacant after the death of a patriarch, overseeing the election of the next patriarch and leading the ceremony for the ordination of the patriarch.[165] Their see is inIndia, serving as the head of theMalankara Jacobite Syrian Church, and remains under the authority of the patriarch. In joint councils, he is seated on the right side of the patriarch and heads the church's regional synod in India with the patriarch's sanction.[28]
The titlebishop comes from theGreek word episkopos, meaning "the one who oversees".[166] A bishop is a spiritual leader in the church and holds different ranks. In the Syriac Orthodox Church, the hierarchy includesmetropolitan bishops (orarchbishops), withauxiliary bishops serving under them. The local head of anarchdiocese is an archbishop. He is under the jurisdiction of the patriarch and is accountable to the Holy Synod.[167]
The priest (Kasheesho) is the one duly appointed to administer thesacraments. Unlike in theCatholic Church, Syriacdeacons may marry before beingordained as priests; they cannot marry after ordained as priests.[168]
Corepiscopi (orarchpriests) are the highesthonorary rank given to married priests.[169] A corespiscopos has the privileges of being the "first among the priests". The ranks above the corepiscopos are unmarried.[170] The title of "reesh-corepiscopos" (arch-corepiscopos) is rare and has been awarded only toCurien Kaniamparambil.[171]
Mshamshono (full deacon) with theOrarion above thealb, a censer and theGospel
In the Syriac Orthodox tradition, different ranks among the deacons are specifically assigned with particular duties. The seven ranks of the diaconate are:[172][169]
The subdeacon ensures only thebaptized remain in the church from the chanting of theNicene Creed untilCommunion. Historically,catechumens attended the sermon but left before the Creed. The subdeacon maintains this practice and church discipline.[173]
Only a full deacon may take thecenser during theDivine Liturgy to assist the priest, but in the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, because of the lack of deacons,altar assistants who do not have a rank of the diaconate may assist the priest.[173] Each archdiocese may have one archdeacon who is referred to as "the right hand of the bishop". Only qualified and learned deacons are elevated to this office.[172] Historically, in the Malankara Church, the local chief was called an archdeacon, who was the ecclesiastical authority of theSaint Thomas Christians in theMalabar region of India.[174]
An ordaineddeaconess is entitled to enter the sanctuary only for cleaning, lighting the lamps and is limited to giveHoly Communion to women and children who are under the age of five.[175][176] She can read Scripture, including theGospels, in a public gatherings. The title of deaconess can also be given to a choirgirl.[177] Ordained deaconesses may sing in the choir.[178] The ministry of the deaconess assists the priest and deacon outside the altar including in the service of baptizing women and anointing them with holychrism.[179]
Syriac Orthodox churches uses thePeshitta (Syriac:ܡܦܩܬܐ ܦܫܝܛܬܐ,lit.'simple, common') as its official Bible. TheNew Testament books of this Bible are estimated to have been translated fromKoine Greek toSyriac between the late first century to the early third century AD. TheOld Testament of the Peshitta was translated fromHebrew, probably in the second century. TheNew Testament of the Peshitta, which originally excluded certain disputed books, had become the standard by the early fifth century, replacing two early Syriac versions of the gospels.[180]
In the Syriac Orthodox Church's biblical interpretation, theSchool of Edessa was divided over whether to accept the works ofTheodore of Mopsuestia.[181] Over the centuries, divisions among Miaphysites, Chalcedonians and other Dyophysites became more pronounced, influencing Syriac literature and leading to the compilation of new works by figures such asDionysius bar Salibi andBar Hebraeus.[182]
The Syriac Orthodox Church theology is based on theNicene Creed. The Syriac Orthodox Church teaches that it is theone, holy, catholic and apostolic Church founded byJesus Christ in hisGreat Commission,[183] that itsmetropolitans are thesuccessors of Christ'sapostles, and that the patriarch is the successor to Saint Peter on whomprimacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. The church accepted the first three synods held atNicaea (325),Constantinople (381), andEphesus (431), shaping the formulation and early interpretation ofChristian doctrines.[184][185] The Syriac Orthodox Church is part ofOriental Orthodoxy, a distinctcommunion of churches claiming to continue the patristic and apostolic Christology before the schism following theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451.[186] In terms ofChristology, the Oriental Orthodox (non-Chalcedonian) understanding is that Christ is of "one nature—theLogos Incarnate, of the full humanity and full divinity". Just as humans areof their mothers and fathers and notin their mothers and fathers, so too is the nature of Christ according to Oriental Orthodoxy. The Chalcedonian understanding is that Christ is "in two natures, full humanity and full divinity". This is the doctrinal difference that separated the Oriental Orthodox and theImperial Church. The church believes in the mystery ofIncarnation and venerates theVirgin Mary asTheotokos orYoldath Aloho, meaning God-bearer.[187][188]
TheFathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church gave a theological interpretation to the primacy of Saint Peter.[189] They were fully convinced of the unique office of Peter in the early Christian community.Ephrem,Aphrahat, andMaruthas unequivocally acknowledged the office of Peter. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification of church buildings, marriages, ordinations etc., reveal that the primacy of Peter is a part of faith of the church. The church does not believe inpapal primacy as understood by theRoman See; rather,Petrine primacy according to the ancient Syriac tradition.[190] The church uses both theJulian calendar and theGregorian calendar based on their regions and traditions they adapted.
Bar Hebraeus wrote aNomocanon with 40 chapters detailing the rules and canons of the church, some of which were derived from other schools of thought. These writings served as a basis for the leadership of the church and were mostly unchanged for 330 years.[191]
Syriac, as the most notable variant ofAramaic language in the Christian era, is used by the Syriac Orthodox Church in two basic forms:classical Syriac is traditionally employed as the main liturgical andliterary language, while theneo-Aramaic (Neo-Syriac) dialect known asTuroyo is spoken as the most common vernacular language.[192][193] Other communities, such as those inBartella, speak a different dialect of Syriac.
Arabic had become the dominant language of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Egypt by the 11th century.[194] Syriac Orthodox clergy wrote in Arabic usingGarshūni, a Syriac script in the 15th century and later adopted the Arabic script.[194] An English missionary in the 1840s noted that the Arabic speech of the Syriacs was intermixed with Syriac vocabulary.[194] They chose Arabic and Muslim-sounding names, while women had Biblical names.[194]
Greek language was historically used (along with Syriac) in the earliest periods, during and after the separation (5th–6th centuries), but its use gradually declined.[195]
Suriyani Malayalam, also known as Karshoni or Syriac Malayalam, is a dialect ofMalayalam written in a variant form of theSyriac alphabet which was popular among theSaint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasranis) ofKerala inIndia.[197][198][199][200] It uses Malayalam grammar, theMaḏnḥāyā or "Eastern" Syriac script with specialorthographic features, and vocabulary from Malayalam and East Syriac. This originated in the South Indian region of theMalabar Coast (modern-day Kerala). Until the 19th century, the script was widely used by Syrian Christians in Kerala.
Theliturgical service is calledHoly Qurobo, meaning Eucharist, in the Syriac language. TheLiturgy of Saint James is celebrated on Sundays and special occasions.[204] The Holy Eucharist consists reading of the Gospel,Bible readings, prayers, and hymns.[205] The recitation of the liturgy is performed according to with specific parts chanted by the presider, the lectors, the choir, and the congregated faithful, at certain times in unison. Apart from certain readings, prayers are sung in the form ofchants andmelodies. Hundreds of melodies remain preserved in the book known asBeth Gazo, the key reference toSyriac Orthodox Church music.[21]
In 1983, the FrenchethnomusicologistChristian Poché produced audio recordings of the liturgical music of the Syriac Orthodox Church. In his liner notes for theUNESCO Anthology of Traditional Music, he described the liturgical music of communities in Antioch, Tur Abdin, Urfa, Mardin in modernTurkey, as well as inAleppo andQamishli in modern Syria.[206]
The clergy of the Syriac Orthodox Church wear unique liturgical vestments according to their order in the priesthood, with certain elements overlapping and building upon one another.[215]
A priest's usual dress, worn when not performing sacraments, is a black robe. In India, due to the hot weather, priests usually wear white robes except during prayers in the church, where they wear a black robe over the white one. A priest also wears aphiro (black skullcap), which he must wear for the public prayers.[216] A corepiscopos is given a chain with a cross and are also required to wear a blackcassock and a traditional violetzoonoro (girdle) made of cloth.[167][217] Aramban (monk) wears amasnapso (hood).[218]Bishops usually wear a black or red robe along with a red belt. They also wear aqawugh (black shaped turban) and an episcopal cross on the chest.[219][216]
Amawdyono deacon wears a white robe calledkutino, symbolizing purity.Mzamrono and ascending ranks of deacons wear thekutino and auroro (orarion) in their respective shapes. Thedeaconess wears auroro hanging down from the shoulder in the manner of an archdeacon.[220]
Priests wear ceremonial shoes calledmsone. Without wearing these shoes, a priest cannot distribute the eucharist to the faithful. The priest also wears the hamniko or stole which is worn over the white robe. Then he wears agirdle calledzoonoro, andzende, meaning sleeves. Acope calledphayno is worn over these vestments.[216]
If the celebrant is a bishop, he wears aveil-mitre over themasnapso.Batrashil, orpallium, is worn over thephayno by bishops and corepiscopas wear a half cope over thephayno, like thehamnikho worn by priests.[221] They carry acrosier stylized with serpents representing thestaff of Moses during liturgy and in public.[216] They also carry a cross and scarf along with the crosier.[215]
The patriarchate was originally established in Antioch (in present-day Syria, Turkey, and Iraq)[222] but later relocated due topersecutions by theRomans,[223] followed by Muslim Arab rule. It was based atMor Hananyo Monastery, Mardin, within the Ottoman Empire from 1160 to 1933,[224] then moved toHoms from 1933 to 1959, and has been seated inDamascus, Syria, since 1959.[225][226] A diaspora has also spread from theLevant, Iraq,[227] and Turkey[228] throughout the world, notably in Sweden,[229] Germany, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Austria, France, United States, Canada,Guatemala, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand.[230][231][61]
It is estimated that the church has 600,000 Syriac adherents, in addition to 483,000 members of theJacobite Syrian Christian Church andtheir own ethnic diaspora in India.[232][233][234] There is also a large Syriac community among Mayan converts in Guatemala and South America numbering up to 500,000.[235] According to scholar James Minahan, around 26% of theAssyrian people belong to the Syriac Orthodox Church.[236] Although the population of Syriac Orthodox in Tur Abdin still remains in the low thousands (2,000 as of 2011),[237] the Syriac population in Turkey is growing due to refugees from Syria and Iraq fleeingISIS, as well as members of the diaspora returning to rebuild their homes after leaving during theTurkey-PKK conflict (1978). The village ofElbeğendi inMidyat has been repopulated by Syriacs from Germany and Switzerland.[238][239]
In theAssyrian/Syriac diaspora, there are approximately 250,000 members in the United States, 120,000 in Sweden, 120,000 in Germany,[240] 15,000 in the Netherlands and 200,000 members in Brazil, Switzerland and Austria.[241]
The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch originally covered the whole region of the Middle East and India. In recent centuries, its parishioners started to emigrate to other countries all over the world. Today, the Syriac Orthodox Church has severalarchdioceses and patriarchal vicariates (exarchates) in many countries, covering six continents. The church's members are divided into 26 archdioceses and 13 patriarchal vicariates.[242]
In 1952, the Patriarchal Vicariate for the U.S. and Canada was created, and in 1995, it was divided into three regional vicariates: Eastern America, Western America and Canada.[245] In 1993,Ignatius Zakka I formed the Malankara Archdiocese of North America for the Indian adherents living in North America.[246] The archdiocese is under the jurisdiction of the patriarchal see.[247]
There are approximately 250,000 members of the three vicariates and more than 1,000,000 members in the Malankara Archdiocese as of 2002.[241]
InGuatemala, aCharismatic movement emerged in 2003 and was excommunicated in 2006 by theRoman Catholic Church. They later joined the Syriac Orthodox Church in 2013 as theSyriac Orthodox Church in Guatemala. Members of this archdiocese are generallyMayan in origin and most live in rural areas.[201] They number around 500,000 based on church estimations.[250] In 2013, the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox churches stated that the church received into communion 600,000–800,000 members from an independent Roman Catholic body.[251] This archdiocese is known as the Archdiocese ofCentral America, theCaribbean Islands andVenezuela.[252][253][254]
The Syriac Orthodox Church in theMiddle East and the diaspora, numbering between 150,000 and 200,000 people, reside in their indigenous area of habitation in Syria, Iraq and Turkey according to estimates.[259] The community formed and developed in the Middle Ages. The Syriac Orthodox Christians of the Middle East speakAramaic. The Syriac Orthodox Church has numerousmonasteries in the region.
The Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, a maphriante, is one of the Saint Thomas Christian churches in India. It is an integral part of the Syriac Orthodox Church, with the patriarch of Antioch serving as its supreme head.[276][277] The local head of the church in Malankara (Kerala) isBaselios Joseph I, ordained by PatriarchIgnatius Aphrem II in March 2025.[278][279] The headquarters of the church in India is atPuthencruz, Ernakulam, Kerala inSouth India. Simhasana churches and the Honavar Mission is under the direct control of the patriarch.[280]
TheMalankara Orthodox Syrian Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church that accepts the Syriac Orthodox patriarch only as its spiritual father as stated by theconstitution of 1934,[285] even though the Syriac Orthodox Church considers themschismatics and does not formally share communion with them.[286]
Altar of St. Mary's Knanaya Syriac church, Kottayam
The Knanaya Archdiocese, in full communion with the Syriac Orthodox Church, exists as an archdiocese for the ethnicKnanaya community in Kerala who practice strictendogamy. It was due to this they were given a separate archdiocese. They are under the guidance and direction of ArchbishopMor Severious Kuriakose. They migrated to Kerala under the leadership of the Syriac merchant Knāy Thoma (Thomas of Cana) who arrived in Kerala in the year 345 AD with a bishop fromEdessa,[287] while another legend traces their origin toJews in the Middle East.[288][289][290]
TheE.A.E. Archdiocese is the missionary association of the Syriac Orthodox Church, founded in 1924 by Geevarghese Athunkal Cor-Episcopa atPerumbavoor.[291] This archdiocese is under the direct control of the patriarch under the guidance ofChrysostomos Markose.[292] It is an organization with churches, educational institutions, orphanages, nursing homes, convents, publications, mission centers, gospel teams, care missions and a missionary training institute. It is registered in 1949 under theIndian Societies Registration Act. XXI of 1860 (Reg. No. S.8/1949ESTD 1924).[293][294] Honnavar Mission is a spiritual and charitable organization based inHonnavar,Karnataka, under the E.A.E. Archdiocese. The mission serves under the guidance of MetropolitanAnthonios Yaqu'b.[295]
Earlier in the 20th century, many Syriacs emigrated to Western Europe, settling in countries like the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and other countries for economic and political reasons.[296][41] The Mor Ephrem Monastery in the Netherlands is the first Syriac Orthodox monastery in Europe, established in 1981.[297] The Mor Awgen Monastery inArth, Switzerland and MorJacob of Serugh Monastery inWarburg, Germany are the othermonasteries located in Europe. The most recent Syriac Orthodox monastery in Europe is the Holy Cross Monastery in Sweden.[298]
The Patriarchal Vicariate of Australia and New Zealand was founded under the patriarch's authority, and is currently led by Archbishop Malatius Malki Malki.[306][307][308] The vicariate is headquartered in the Saint Ephraim Syriac Orthodox church.[309]
The church has various seminaries, colleges, and other institutions.[310] Patriarch Aphrem I Barsoum established St. Aphrem's Clerical School in the year 1934 inZahlé, Lebanon.[311] In 1946, the school was moved toMosul, Iraq.[311][312] It provided the church with a selection of graduates, the first among them being Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and many other church leaders.[313]
In 1990, the Order of St. Jacob Baradaeus was established fornuns.[314][315] Seminaries have been instituted in Sweden and inSalzburg, Austria for the study of Syriac theology, history, language, and culture.[316][317] The church has an international Christian education center for religious education.[318] The Antioch Syrian University was established on 8 September 2018 inMaarat Saidnaya, near Damascus.[319] The university offers engineering, management and economics courses.[320] The Happy Child House project inaugurated in 2022 provideschildcare services in Damascus, Syria.[321]
There are some commonChristological and pastoral agreements with the Catholic Church. By the 20th century as theChalcedonian schism was not seen with the same relevance, and from several meetings between the authorities of the Catholic Church and the Oriental Orthodox, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statements of the PatriarchIgnatius Jacob III and PopePaul VI in 1971,[327] Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and PopeJohn Paul II in 1984 issued a common statement:
The confusions and schisms that occurred between their Churches in the later centuries, they realise today, in no way affect or touch the substance of their faith, since these arose only because of differences in terminology and culture and in the various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter. Accordingly, we find today no real basis for the sad divisions and schisms that subsequently arose between us concerning the doctrine of Incarnation. In words and life, we confess the true doctrine concerning Christ our Lord, notwithstanding the differences in interpretation of such a doctrine which arose at the time of the Council of Chalcedon.[328]
The precise differences in theology that caused the Chalcedonian controversy is said to have arisen "only because of differences in terminology and culture and in the various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter", according to a common declaration statement between Patriarch Ignatius Jacob III and Pope Paul VI on Wednesday 27 October 1971.[327]
In 2015,Pope Francis addressed the Syriac Orthodox Church as "a church of Martyrs", welcoming the visit of Ignatius Aphrem II to theHoly See.[329]
In 2015, Ignatius Aphrem II visitedPatriarch Kirill of Moscow of theRussian Orthodox Church and discussed prospects of bilateral and theological dialogue existing since the late 1980s.[330] The two leaders discussed various contemporary issues, including the situation of Christians in theMiddle East and the role of the Russian Orthodox Church in addressing these concerns at international forums. They also explored ways to strengthen relations between their respective churches and coordinate their positions on matters related to conflict and violence.[331]
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^abMurre-van den Berg, Heleen (25 November 2011). "Syriac Orthodox Church".The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.doi:10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc1344.ISBN978-1-4051-5762-9.The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and all the East has almost one and a half million adherents. Of these, roughly two-thirds (one million) live in India, somewhat more than one-sixth (260,000) in the Middle East, whereas the remaining sixth is divided over Europe (100,000, mostly in Sweden, Germany, and the Netherlands), North and South America (up to 40,000, most of these in the US and Canada), and Australia (a few thousand).
^Haar Romeny, Bas ter; Atto, Naures; Ginkel, Jan J. van; Immerzeel, Mat; Snelders, Bas (2009)."The Formation of a Communal Identity among West Syrian Christians: Results and Conclusions of the Leiden Project".Brill. Church History and Religious Culture.89:1–52.doi:10.1163/187124109X407989. Retrieved26 November 2025 – via JSTOR.Therefore their identity was not just religiously motivated— although that element was always dominant—but also included the cultural traditions of pagan empires such as those of the Assyrians and the Aramean kingdoms. As is the case with other examples of ethnogenesis, this core of traditions is not a given, but something that crystallized out of the available stories and customs and only slowly came into existence. It is not unchangeable, but is continuously reinterpreted, added to, and detracted from. However, the Syriac Orthodox were by the twelfth century aware of having such a core.
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