The2000 Summer Olympics, officially theGames of the XXVII Olympiad, officially branded asSydney 2000, and also known as theGames of the New Millennium, were an internationalmulti-sport event held from 15 September to 1 October 2000 inSydney, New South Wales, Australia. It marked the second time theSummer Olympics were held in Australia, and in theSouthern Hemisphere, the first being inMelbourne, in1956.
Teams from 199 countries participated in the 2000 Games, which were the first to feature at least 300 events in its official sports program. The Games were estimated to have costA$6.6 billion. These were the final Olympic Games under theIOC presidency ofJuan Antonio Samaranch before the arrival of his successorJacques Rogge.
The final medal tally at the 2000 Summer Olympics was led by theUnited States, followed byRussia andChina with hostAustralia in fourth place overall. Cameroon, Colombia, Latvia, Mozambique, and Slovenia won a gold medal for the first time in their Olympic histories, while Barbados, Kuwait,Kyrgyzstan, Macedonia, Saudi Arabia, and Vietnam won their first-ever Olympic medals.
The 2000 Games received universal acclaim, with the organisation, volunteers, sportsmanship, and Australian public being lauded in the international media.Bill Bryson ofThe Times called the Sydney Games "one of the most successful events on the world stage", saying that they "couldn't be better".[3] James Mossop of theElectronic Telegraph called the Games "such a success that any city considering bidding for future Olympics must be wondering how it can reach the standards set by Sydney",[4] while Jack Todd of theMontreal Gazette suggested that the "IOC should quit while it's ahead. Admit there can never be a better Olympic Games, and be done with it," as "Sydney was both exceptional and the best".[3] These games would provide the inspiration forLondon'swinning bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in 2005; in preparing for the 2012 Games,Lord Coe declared the 2000 Games the "benchmark for the spirit of the Games, unquestionably", admitting that the London organizing committee "attempted in several ways to emulate what the Sydney Organising Committee did."[5]
Australia will host the Summer Olympics inBrisbane in2032, making it the first Asia-Pacific country to host the Summer Olympics three times and also the second time Australia will host the Summer Olympics after the United States hosting it with how Brisbane will come afterLos Angeles hosting the2028 Summer Olympics.[6]
Sydney won the right to host the Games on 24 September 1993, after being selected overBeijing,Berlin,Istanbul, andManchester in four rounds of voting, at the 101stIOC Session inMonte Carlo,Monaco.Brasília,Milan, andTashkent made bids before deciding to withdraw during the bidding process.[7] The Australian city ofMelbourne which also hosted the1956 Summer Olympics had lost out toAtlanta for the1996 Summer Olympics three years earlier.[8] Beijing would later be selected to host the2008 Summer Olympics eight years later on 13 July 2001 and the2022 Winter Olympics twenty-two years later on 31 July 2015. Milan would also go on to win the2026 Winter Olympics along withCortina d'Ampezzo twenty-six years later on 24 June 2019. Beijing's loss to Sydney was seen as a "significant blow" to an "urgent political priority" of theChinese Communist Party leadership having mounted the most intense and expensive candidacy campaign at the date so far (this includes the Summer and Winter Games). Although it is unknown as two members of the International Olympic Committee voted for Sydney over Beijing in 1993, it appears that an important role was played byHuman Rights Watch's campaign to "stop Beijing" because of China's human rights record and international isolation following the1989 Tiananmen Square protests.[9] Many in China were angry at what they saw as U.S.-led interference in the vote, and the outcome contributed to risinganti-Western sentiment in China and a new phase in the tensions inSino-American relations.[10]
TheOxford Olympics Study 2016 estimates the outturn cost of the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics at US$5 billion in 2015 dollars and cost overrun at 90% in real terms.[12] This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i)operational costs incurred by the organizing committee to stage the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii)direct capital costs incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast centre, and media and press centre, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs arenot included, such as for road,rail, airport infrastructure, hotel upgrades, or other business investments incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost for Sydney 2000 compares with a cost of US$4.6 billion for Rio 2016, US$40–44 billion for Beijing 2008, and US$51 billion for Sochi 2014, the most expensive Olympics in history. The average cost for the Summer Games since 1960 is US$5.2 billion, average cost overrun is 176%.
In 2000, theAuditor-General of New South Wales reported that the Sydney Games costA$6.6 billion, with a net cost to the public between A$1.7 and A$2.4 billion.[13][14] In the years leading up to the games, funds were shifted from education and health programs to cover Olympic expenses.[15]
It has been estimated that the economic impact of the 2000 Olympics was that A$2.1 billion has been shaved from public consumption. Economic growth was not stimulated to a net benefit and in the years after 2000, foreign tourism to NSW grew by less than tourism to Australia as a whole. A "multiplier" effect on broader economic development was not realised, as a simple "multiplier" analysis fails to capture that resources have to be redirected from elsewhere: the building of a stadium is at the expense of other public works such as extensions to hospitals. Building sporting venues does not add to the aggregate stock of productive capital in the years following the Games: "Equestrian centers, softball compounds, and man-made rapids are not particularly useful beyond their immediate function."[16]
Many venues that were constructed inSydney Olympic Park failed financially in the years immediately following the Olympics to meet the expected bookings to meet upkeep expenses. It was only the2003 Rugby World Cup that reconnected the park back to citizens.[17] In recent years,[when?] infrastructure costs for some facilities have been of growing concern to the NSW Government, especially facilities in Western Sydney.[17] Proposedmetro andlight rail links from Olympic Park to Parramatta have been estimated to cost in the same order of magnitude as the public expenditure on the games.[18][citation needed]Stadium Australia had been considered fordemolition in 2017 by then NSW PremierGladys Berejiklian, citing that the stadium was "built for an Olympics" but not for modern spectators.[19] The plan was scrapped in 2020 during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[20] TheDunc Gray Velodrome has also struggled to keep up its $500,000-per-year maintenance costs,[18] although it is still used for track cycling events.[21]
Although the Opening Ceremony was not scheduled until 15 September, thefootball competitions began with preliminary matches on 13 September. Among the pre-ceremony fixtures, host nation Australia lost 1–0 toItaly at theMelbourne Cricket Ground, which was the main stadium for the1956 Melbourne Olympics.
The opening ceremony began with a tribute to the pastoral heritage of theAustralian stockmen and the importance of thestock horse in Australia's heritage. It was produced and filmed by the Sydney Olympic Broadcasting Organisation and the home nation broadcasterSeven Network.[22] This was introduced by lone riderSteve Jefferys and his rearingAustralian Stock HorseAmmo. At the cracking of Jefferys'stockwhip, a further 120 riders entered the stadium, their stock horses performing intricate steps, including forming the fiveOlympic Rings, sounded by a new version of the song thatBruce Rowland had previously composed for the 1982 filmThe Man from Snowy River.
The cultural segments of the event take place with many aspects of the land and its people: the affinity of the mainly coastal-dwelling Australians with the sea that surrounds the Island Continent. TheIndigenous inhabitation of the land, the coming of theFirst Fleet, the continued immigration from many nations, and the rural industry on which the economy of the nation was built, including a display representing the harshness of rural life based on the paintings of SirSidney Nolan. Two memorable scenes were the representation of the heart of the country by 200Aboriginal women fromCentral Australia who danced up "the mighty spirit of God to protect the Games"[This quote needs a citation] and the overwhelmingly noisy representation of theconstruction industry by hundreds of tap-dancing teenagers.
Because the wife of then-IOC PresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch was seriously ill and unable to accompany her husband to the Olympics,Dawn Fraser, former Australian Olympic Champion swimmer and member of theParliament of New South Wales, accompanied Samaranch during the Australian cultural segments, explaining to him some of the cultural references that are unfamiliar for the people from outside Australia.
A record 199 nations entered the stadium, with a record 80 of them winning at least one medal. The only missingIOC member wasAfghanistan, who was banned due to the extremist rule of theTaliban's oppression of women and its prohibition of sports.[23] The ceremony featured a unified entrance by the athletes ofNorth andSouth Korea,[b] using a specially designedunification flag: a white background flag with a blue map of theKorean Peninsula. Four athletes fromEast Timor also marched in the parade of nations asindividual Olympic athletes and marched directly before the host country. Although the country-to-be had no National Olympic Committee then, they were allowed to compete under theOlympic Flag with country codeIOA. TheGovernor-General,Sir William Deane, opened the games.
The opening ceremony concluded with the lighting of theOlympic Flame, which was brought into the stadium by former Australian Olympic championHerb Elliott. Then, celebrating 100 years of women's participation in the Olympic Games, former Australian women Olympic medalistsBetty Cuthbert andRaelene Boyle,Dawn Fraser,Shirley Strickland (later Shirley Strickland de la Hunty),Shane Gould andDebbie Flintoff-King brought the torch through the stadium, handing it over toCathy Freeman, who lit the flame in thecauldron within a circle of fire. The choice of Freeman, an Aboriginal woman, to light the flame was notable given thehistory of human rights abuses against Aboriginal people in Australia.[25] Following her lighting, Freeman was the subject of racial abuse from some Australians.[26] The planned spectacular climax to the ceremony was delayed by the technical glitch of a computer switch which malfunctioned, causing the sequence to shut down by giving a false reading. This meant that the Olympic flame was suspended in mid-air for about four minutes rather than immediately rising up a water-covered ramp to the top of the stadium. When the cause of the problem was discovered, the program was overridden and the cauldron continued its course, and the ceremony concluded with a fireworks display.[27]
Gold medallistNancy Johnson (centre) of the U.S., raises her hands with silver medallistKang Cho-hyun (left), of South Korea, and bronze winnerGao Jing (right), of China, during the first medal ceremony of the 2000 Olympic Games.
The first medals of the Games were awarded in the women's 10 metreair rifle competition, which was won byNancy Johnson of the United States.
TheTriathlon made its Olympic debut with the women's race. Set in the surroundings of theSydney Opera House,Brigitte McMahon representing Switzerland swam, cycled and ran to the first gold medal in the sport, beating the favoured home athletes such as Michelie Jones who won silver. McMahon only passed Jones in sight of the finish line.
The first star of the Games was 17-year-old AustralianIan Thorpe, who first set a new world record in the 400-metre freestyle final before competing in an exciting 4 × 100 m freestyle final. Swimming the last leg, Thorpe passed the leading American team and arrived in a new world record time, two-tenths of a second ahead of the Americans. In the same event for women, the Americans also broke the world record, finishing ahead of the Netherlands and Sweden.
Samaranch had to leave for home, as his wife was severely ill. Upon arrival, his wife had already died. Samaranch returned to Sydney four days later. The Olympic flag was flown at half-staff during the period as a sign of respect to Samaranch's wife.
In the swimming pool, AmericanTom Dolan beat the world record in the 400-metremedley, successfully defending the title he won inAtlanta four years prior. DutchwomanInge de Bruijn also clocked a new world record, beating her own time in the 100 m butterfly final to win by more than a second.
The main event for the Australians on the fourth day of the Games was the 200 m freestyle. DutchmanPieter van den Hoogenband had broken the world record in the semi-finals, taking it from the new Australian heroIan Thorpe, who came close to the world record in his semi-final heat. As the final race finished, Van den Hoogenband's time was exactly the same as in the semi-finals, finishing ahead of Thorpe by half a second.
China won thegold medal in the men's team all-around gymnastics competition after being the runner-up in the previous two Olympics. The other medals were taken byUkraine and Russia, respectively.
Zijlaard-van Moorsel lived up to the expectations set by her world record in cycling in the semis by winning the gold medal.
During the Women's Gymnastics All-Around, female athletes suffered damning scores and injuries due to improperly installed gymnastics equipment. Gymnasts performing on thevault gave uncharacteristically poor performances and fell. Officials blamed the series of falls and low scores onperformance anxiety. It was not until Australian gymnastAllana Slater and her coach,Peggy Liddick, voiced concerns about the equipment that officials discovered the apparatus was five centimetres, or almost two inches, lower than it should have been. While athletes were given the opportunity to perform again, for some of them, the damage to their mental or physical health caused by the vault was irreparable. Chinese gymnastKui Yuanyuan and American gymnastKristen Maloney both injured their legs while attempting to stick their landings, with Kui needing to be carried to an examination area and Maloney damaging a titanium rod that had recently been implanted in her shin. Romanian gymnastAndreea Răducan ultimately took gold while her teammates,Simona Amânar andMaria Olaru took silver and bronze, respectively.
By rowing in the winning coxless four,Steve Redgrave of Great Britain became a member of a select group who had won gold medals at five consecutive Olympics.
The swimming 4 x 100-metre medley relay of B.J. Bedford,Megan Quann (Jendrick),Jenny Thompson andDara Torres became the first women's relay under 4-minutes, swimming 3:58 and setting a world record, claiming the gold medal for the United States.
Rulon Gardner, never anNCAA champion or a world medalist, beatAlexander Karelin of Russia to win gold in the super heavyweight class,Greco-Roman wrestling. Karelin had won gold inSeoul,Barcelona andAtlanta. Before this fight, he had never lost in international competition, had been unbeaten in all competitions in 13 years, and had not surrendered a point in a decade.
AustralianCathy Freeman won the 400-metre final in front of a jubilant Sydney crowd at theOlympic Stadium, ahead ofLorraine Graham of Jamaica andKatharine Merry of Great Britain. Freeman's win made her the first competitor in Olympic Games history to light theOlympic Flame and then go on to win aGold Medal. The attendance at the stadium was 112,524 – the largest attendance for any sport in Olympic Games history.
In a men's basketball pool match between theUnited States andFrance, the USA'sVince Carter made one of the most famousdunks in basketball history. After getting the ball off a steal, the 6'6"/1.98 m Carter drove to the basket, with 7'2"/2.18 m centreFrédéric Weis in his way. Carter jumped, spread his legs in midair, scraped Weis' head on the way up, and dunked. The French media dubbed the featle dunk de la mort ("the dunk of death").
TheCanadian flag at the athletes' village was lowered tohalf-mast as Canadian athletes paid tribute to the former prime ministerPierre Trudeau after hearing of hisdeath in Montreal (because of thetime zone difference, it was 29 September in Sydney when Trudeau died). The Canadian flag was flown at half-mast for the remainder of the Olympics, on orders from both IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch and Canadian Foreign Affairs MinisterLloyd Axworthy, and as thestate funeral did not take place until 3 October, two days after the closing ceremony, so they have enough time to head back to Canada after the Games and attending his funeral.
Cameroon won a historic gold medal overSpain in the Men's OlympicFootball Final at the Olympic Stadium. The game went to a penalty shootout, which was won by Cameroon 5–3.[28]
The last event of the games was the Men's Marathon, contested on a course that started in North Sydney. The event was won byEthiopianGezahegne Abera, with KenyanErick Wainaina second, andTesfaye Tola, also of Ethiopia, third. It was the first time since the 1968 Olympics that an Ethiopian won the gold medal in this event.
The closing ceremony commenced withChristine Anu performing her version of theWarumpi Band's song "My Island Home", with severalAboriginal dancers atop the Geodome Stage in the middle of the stadium, around which several hundred umbrella and lamp box kids created an image of Aboriginal Dreamtime. The Geodome Stage was used throughout the ceremony, which was a flat stage mechanically raised into the shape of aGeode.
"I am proud and happy to proclaim that you have presented to the world the best Olympic Games ever."
Subsequent Summer Olympics held inAthens,Beijing andLondon have been described by Samaranch's successorJacques Rogge as "unforgettable, dream Games", "truly exceptional" and "happy and glorious games" respectively – the practice of declaring games the "best ever" having been retired after the 2000 Games.
Although demonstration sports were abolished following the1992 Summer Olympics, the Sydney Olympics featuredwheelchair racing as exhibition events on the athletics schedule.[30]
Specialquarantine conditions were introduced to allow entry of horses into Australia to participate in equestrian events,[31] avoiding the need for such events to take place elsewhere as had happened at the1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne.
Afghanistan was the only 1996 participant (and the only existing NOC) that did not participate in the 2000 Olympics, having been banned due to theTaliban's totalitarian rule in Afghanistan, their oppression of women, and its prohibition of sports.
These are the top ten nations that won medals in the 2000 Games.
The ranking in this table is based on information provided by theInternational Olympic Committee.[32] Some other sources[33] may be inconsistent due to not taking into account all later doping cases.
SOCOG organisational structure circa 1998 – five groups and 33 divisions reporting to the CEO are organised primarily along functional lines with only a limited number of divisions (e.g. Interstate Football and Villages) anticipating a venue focussed design.SOCOG organisational structure circa 1999 – functional divisions and precinct/venue streams are organised in a matrix structure linked to the Main Operations Centre (MOC). Some functions such as Project Management (in the Games Coordination group) continue to exist largely outside this matrix structure.
A number of quasi-government bodies were responsible for the construction, organisation and execution of the Sydney Games. These included:
the Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games (SOCOG) and theSydney Paralympic Organizing Committee (SPOC), primarily responsibles for the staging of the Games
Olympic Coordination Authority (OCA), primarily responsible for construction and oversight
The organisation of the2000 Summer Paralympics was the responsibility of theSydney Paralympic Organising Committee (SPOC). However, much of the planning and operation of the Paralympic Games was outsourced to SOCOG such that most operational programmes planned both the Olympic and Paralympic Games.
The organisation of the Games included not only the actual sporting events, but also the management (and sometimes construction) of the sporting venues and surrounding precincts, theOlympic torch relay, which began in Greece and travelled to Australia via numerous Oceania island nations, and theSydney Olympic Arts Festival.
The internal organisation of SOCOG evolved over the phases of the project and changed, sometimes radically, several times.
In late 1998, the design was principally functional. The top two tiers below the CEOSandy Hollway consisted of five groups (managed by Group General Managers and the Deputy CEO) and twenty divisions (managed by divisional General Managers), which in turn were further broken up into programmes and sub-programmes or projects.
In 1999, functional areas (FAs) broke up into geographic precinct and venue teams (managed by Precinct Managers and Venue Managers) with functional area staff reporting to both the FA manager and the venue manager. SOCOG moved to a matrix structure. The Interstate Football division extant in 1998 was the first of these geographically based venue teams.
The origins of the volunteer program for Sydney 2000 dates back to the bid, as early as 1992.
On 17 December 1992, a group of Sydney citizens interested in the prospect of hosting the 2000 Olympic and Paralympic Games gathered for a meeting at Sports House atWentworth Park in Sydney.
In the period leading up to 1999, after Sydney had won the bid, the small group of volunteers grew from approximately 42 to around 500. These volunteers became known as Pioneer Volunteers. The Pioneer Volunteer program was managed internally by SOCOG's Volunteer Services Department in consultation with prominent peak groups like The Centre for Volunteering (Volunteering andTAFE. Some of the Pioneer Volunteers still meet every four months, an unseen legacy of the games which brought together a community spirit not seen before.
During the Olympic games, tens of thousands of volunteers (the official figure placed at 46,967)[34] helped everywhere at the Olympic venues and elsewhere in the city. They were honoured with a parade like the athletes had a few days before.[35]
The Dome and Exhibition Complex: Badminton, Basketball, Gymnastics (rhythmic), Handball (final), Modern Pentathlon (fencing, shooting), Volleyball (indoor)
Sydney SuperDome: Gymnastics (artistic, trampoline), Basketball (final)
The original festivals in Olympia celebrated both cultural events and physical feats. The tradition continued with the first modern Olympics in 1896, and since then various cultural events have accompanied the sporting competition. Starting with the1992 Barcelona Olympics, a cycle of four arts festivals have been staged by each host country.[36] The Sydney Olympic Arts Festival was an arts festival that ran before and during the Olympics.[37] The festival event coordinator was David Gallen.[36]
The second festival was "A Sea Change", in which artists and companies from Australia andOceania explored "the influence of the sea on Australian life as a means to explore the changing political and cultural climates in Australia".[36]
The third festival, "Reaching the World" took the form of an international tour, from November 1998 until January 2000, travelling to all five regions represented by theOlympic rings (Europe, Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Oceania) and showcasing Australian culture by means of exhibitions, performances, and various media.[36]
The fourth and final festival, while featuring many international artists and companies, served as a showcase for the diversity and depth of the arts in Australia. Opening four weeks before the Olympic games, the Sydney 2000 Olympics Arts Festival ran until the last day of athletic competition, from 18 August to 26 September 2000. Starting with an all-dayAboriginal welcoming ceremony,Tubowgule ("the Meeting of the Waters"), choreographed byStephen Page, began atLa Perouse beach nearBotany Bay, and concluded atBennelong Point, in the forecourt of Sydney Opera House.[36] There, ontemporary Indigenous dance companyBangarra Dance Theatre performedEnergy of Australia.[39] The gala opening event for the festival was the musically pyrotechnical "Symphony of a Thousand" byMahler at theSydney SuperDome.[36] The festival included many performing arts events, mostly presented at the Sydney Opera House. Concerts were performed by many orchestras, includingSydney Symphony Orchestra, Orchestra Filarmonica della Scala, theNew Zealand Symphony Orchestra, theMelbourne Symphony Orchestra, theAustralian Chamber Orchestra, theAsian Youth Orchestra, and theAustralian Youth Orchestra, and operas were presented.[36] There were also dance, singing, and drama performances, staged mainly at the Opera House but also atHer Majesty's Theatre and theCapitol Theatre.[40]
The official logo was revealed in 1996, and is also referred to as the "Millennium Man".[42] It incorporated similar curves to the bid logo and combined them with a stylised image of a runner to form a torchbearer in motion. The image of the runners composed of two small yellow boomerangs for arms and a larger red boomerang for legs. Over the runner's head is a trail of smoke that represents both the arches of the Sydney Opera House and the Olympic torch carrying the flame.[43]
The design process of the official logo, as well as all other aspects of the Olympic Games' visual design identity, was awarded toMelbourne design studio FHA Image Design.[44] The Sydney Olympics brand identity project officially started in 1993, and lasted 7 years. It was also up to FHA Design to prepare the visual identity of the Paralympic Games and this also absorbed some elements as the identification signals and the pictograms.
The officialmascots chosen for the 2000 Summer Olympics were Syd theplatypus, Millie theechidna, and Olly thekookaburra,[45] designed by Matthew Hattan andJozef Szekeres and named by Philip Sheldon of agency Weekes Morris Osborn in response to the original SOCOG recommendation of Murray, Margery, and Dawn after famous Australian athletes.
Gold, silver, and bronze medals from the 2000 Summer Olympics
A total of 750 gold, 750 silver and 780 bronze medals were minted for the Games. The gold and silver medals contained 99.99 percent of pure silver. The bronze medals were 99 percent bronze with one percent silver, they were made by melting downAustralian one-cent andtwo-cent coins,[49][50][51] which had been removed from circulation from 1992 onward.
The bouquets handed to medal recipients incorporated foliage from theGrevillea baileyana, also known as the white oak.[52]
The International Olympic Committee awarded Sydney and its inhabitants with the "Pierre de Coubertin Trophy" in recognition of the collaboration and happiness shown by the people of Sydney during the event to all the athletes and visitors around the world.[53]
After the games' end, theNew South Wales Police Force was granted use of the Olympic Rings in a new commendation and citation as the IOC consideration after having staged the "safest" games ever.
The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards (commonly known informally as theMo Awards), were annual Australian entertainment industry awards. They recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia from 1975 to 2016.[54]
InMorris Gleitzman's children's bookToad Rage, a cane toad travels to Sydney in a bid to become the Olympic mascot.[56]
The Games was anABCmockumentary television series that ran in 1998 and 2000. The series satirized corruption and cronyism in the Olympic movement, bureaucratic ineptness in the New South Wales public service, and unethical behaviour within politics and the media. An unusual feature of the show was that the characters shared the same name as the actors who played them.[57]
In the universe of theCyberpunk tabletop role-playing game, the 2000 Olympics were never held due to bankruptcy and a boycott by nations supporting Aboriginal land claims.[58]
^The logo is a stylised image of a torchbearer; the top part, in blue, represents the smoke from the Olympic torch, which draws the outline of theSydney Opera House; the middle part, in yellow, represents the head and arms of a torchbearer, the arms symbolised by two boomerangs; the bottom part, in red, depicts the torchbearer's legs, also symbolised by a boomerang.
^The national teams ofNorth Korea andSouth Korea competed separately in the Olympic events, even though they marched together as aunified Korean team in the opening ceremony.
^Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016).The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games. Oxford: Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford). pp. 9, 13.SSRN2804554.
^"Cost of the Olympic and Paralympic Games"(PDF). pp. 10–11. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 20 June 2005.Olympic Co-ordination Authority ... OCA's current report on the actual result ... Total net impact in A$$ million: ... 1,326.1
^Saulwick, Jacob (12 April 2008)."No medals for economic benefits of the Games".Business Day. Archived fromthe original on 18 August 2012. Retrieved16 April 2008. The article is based largely on a recent study by James Giesecke and John Madden from the Centre of Policy Studies at Monash University.
^Bruce, T., & Wensing, E. (2009). 'She's not one of us': Cathy Freeman and the place of Aboriginal people in Australian national culture. Australian Aboriginal Studies, (2), 90-100.
^Information given byRic Birch, Director of Ceremonies, during an interview at the end of the official DVD of the 2000 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony
^Olde, Peter (2000)."The Olympic Bouquets"(PDF).Grevillea Study Group Newsletter (57): 8.ISSN0725-8755.Archived(PDF) from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved14 November 2011.
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