Asword is anedged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than aknife ordagger, is attached to ahilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed tip. A slashing sword is more likely to be curved and to have a sharpened cutting edge on one or both sides of the blade. Many swords are designed for both thrusting and slashing. The precise definition of a sword varies by historical epoch and geographic region.
The use of a sword is known asswordsmanship or, in a modern context, asfencing. In theearly modern period, western sword design diverged into two forms, the thrusting swords and the sabres.
Thrusting swords such as therapier and eventually thesmallsword were designed to impale their targets quickly and inflict deep stab wounds. Their long and straight yet light and well balanced design made them highly maneuverable and deadly in a duel but fairly ineffective when used in a slashing or chopping motion. A well aimed lunge and thrust could end a fight in seconds with just the sword's point, leading to the development of a fighting style which closely resembles modern fencing.
Slashing swords such as thesabre and similar blades such as thecutlass were built more heavily and were more typically used in warfare. Built for slashing and chopping at multiple enemies, often from horseback, the sabre's long curved blade and slightly forward weight balance gave it a deadly character all its own on the battlefield. Most sabres also had sharp points and double-edged blades, making them capable of piercing soldier after soldier in a cavalry charge. Sabres continued to see battlefield use until the early 20th century. The US Navy M1917 Cutlass used inWorld War I was kept in their armory well intoWorld War II and many Marines were issued a variant called the M1941 Cutlass as a makeshift junglemachete during thePacific War.[2][3]
Non-European weapons classified as swords include single-edged weapons such as the Middle Easternscimitar, the Chinesedao and the related Japanesekatana. The Chinesejiàn剑 is an example of a non-Europeandouble-edged sword, like the European models derived from the double-edgedIron Age sword.
Apa-type swords, 17th-century BCThe swords found together with theNebra sky disk, c. 1600 BC
The first weapons that can be described as "swords" date to around 3300 BC. They have been found inArslantepe, Turkey, are made fromarsenical bronze, and are about 60 cm (24 in) long.[4][5] Some of them are inlaid withsilver.[5]
The sword developed from the knife or dagger. The sword became differentiated from the dagger during the Bronze Age (c. 3000 BC), when copper and bronze weapons were produced with long leaf-shaped blades and with hilts consisting of an extension of the blade in handle form. A knife is unlike adagger in that a knife has only one cutting surface, while a dagger has two cutting surfaces.[6] Construction of longer blades became possible during the 3rd millennium BC in the Middle East, first inarsenic copper, then in tin-bronze.[7]
Blades longer than 60 cm (24 in) were rare and not practical until the late Bronze Age because theYoung's modulus (stiffness) ofbronze is relatively low, and consequently longer blades would bend easily.[8] The development of the sword out of the dagger was gradual; the first weapons that can be classified as swords without any ambiguity are those found inMinoan Crete, dated to about 1700 BC, reaching a total length of more than 100 cm (39 in). These are the "type A" swords of theAegean Bronze Age.[9][10]
Naue II swords were exported from Europe to the Aegean, and as far afield asUgarit, beginning about 1200 BC, i.e. just a few decades before the final collapse of the palace cultures in theBronze Age collapse.[12] Naue II swords could be as long as 85 cm, but most specimens fall into the 60 to 70 cm range.Robert Drews linked the Naue Type II Swords, which spread from Southern Europe into the Mediterranean, with theBronze Age collapse.[13] Naue II swords, along with Nordic full-hilted swords, were made with functionality and aesthetics in mind.[14] The hilts of these swords were beautifully crafted and often contained false rivets in order to make the sword more visually appealing. Swords coming from northern Denmark and northern Germany usually contained three or more fake rivets in the hilt.[15]
Sword production in China is attested from the Bronze AgeShang dynasty.[16] The technology for bronze swords reached its high point during the Warring States period and Qin dynasty. Amongst the Warring States period swords, some unique technologies were used, such as casting high tin edges over softer, lower tin cores, or the application of diamond shaped patterns on the blade (seesword of Goujian). Also unique for Chinese bronzes is the consistent use of high tin bronze (17–21% tin) which is very hard and breaks if stressed too far, whereas other cultures preferred lower tin bronze (usually 10%), which bends if stressed too far. Although iron swords were made alongside bronze, it was not until the earlyHan period that iron completely replaced bronze.[17]
In theIndian subcontinent, earliest availableBronze age swords of copper were discovered in theIndus Valley civilization sites in the northwestern regions ofSouth Asia. Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout theGanges-JamunaDoab region of Indian subcontinent, consisting ofbronze but more commonlycopper.[18] Diverse specimens have been discovered inFatehgarh, where there are several varieties of hilt.[18] These swords have been variously dated to times between 1700 and 1400 BC. Other swords from this period in India have been discovered fromKallur, Raichur.[18]
Iron became increasingly common from the 13th century BC. Before that the use of swords was less frequent. The iron was notquench-hardened although often containing sufficient carbon, but work-hardened like bronze by hammering. This made them comparable or only slightly better in terms of strength and hardness to bronze swords. They could still bend during use rather than spring back into shape. But the easier production, and the better availability of the raw material for the first time permitted the equipping of entire armies with metal weapons, though Bronze Age Egyptian armies were sometimes fully equipped with bronze weapons.[19]
Ancient swords are often found at burial sites. The sword was often placed on the right side of the corpse. Many times the sword was kept over the corpse. In many lateIron Age graves, the sword and thescabbard were bent at 180 degrees. It was known as killing the sword. Thus they might have considered swords as the most potent and powerful object.[20]
In the first millennium BC, thePersian armies used a sword that was originally of Scythian design called theakinaka (acinaces).[29] However, the great conquests of the Persians made the sword more famous as a Persian weapon, to the extent that the true nature of the weapon has been lost somewhat as the nameakinaka has been used to refer to whichever form of sword the Persian army favoured at the time.[30]
It is widely believed that the originalakinaka was a 35 to 45 cm (14 to 18 inch) double-edged sword. The design was not uniform and in fact identification is made more on the nature of thescabbard than the weapon itself; the scabbard usually has a large, decorative mount allowing it to be suspended from a belt on the wearer's right side. Because of this, it is assumed that the sword was intended to be drawn with the blade pointing downwards ready for surprise stabbing attacks.
In the 12th century, theSeljuq dynasty had introduced the curvedshamshir to Persia, and this was in extensive use by the early 16th century.
Chinese iron swords made their first appearance in the later part of theWestern Zhou dynasty, but iron and steel swords were not widely used until the 3rd century BCHan dynasty.[17] The Chinesedao (刀pinyin dāo) is single-edged, sometimes translated assabre orbroadsword, and thejian (劍 or 剑pinyin jiàn) is double-edged. Thezhanmadao (literally "horse chopping sword") is an extremely long, anti-cavalry sword from theSong dynasty era.
During theMiddle Ages, sword technology improved, and the sword became a very advanced weapon. Thespatha type remained popular throughout theMigration period and well into the Middle Ages.Vendel Age spathas were decorated with Germanic artwork (not unlike the Germanicbracteates fashioned after Roman coins). TheViking Age saw again a more standardized production, but the basic design remained indebted to the spatha.[31]
Around the 10th century, the use of properly quenchedhardened andtempered steel started to become much more common than in previous periods. TheFrankish'Ulfberht' blades (the name of the maker inlaid in the blade) were of particularly consistent high quality.[32]Charles the Bald tried to prohibit the export of these swords, as they were used byVikings in raids against theFranks.
Wootz steel (which is also known asDamascus steel) was a unique and highly prized steel developed on the Indian subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC. Its properties were unique due to the special smelting and reworking of the steel creating networks of iron carbides described as a globularcementite in a matrix ofpearlite. The use of Damascus steel in swords became extremely popular in the 16th and 17th centuries.[nb 1][33]
It was only from the 11th century thatNorman swords began to develop thecrossguard (quillons). During theCrusades of the 12th to 13th century, thiscruciform type ofarming sword remained essentially stable, with variations mainly concerning the shape of thepommel. These swords were designed as cutting weapons, although effective points were becoming common to counter improvements in armour, especially the 14th-century change frommail toplate armour.[34]
It was during the 14th century, with the growing use of more advanced armour, that the hand and a half sword, also known as a "bastard sword", came into being. It had an extended grip that meant it could be used with either one or two hands. Though these swords did not provide a full two-hand grip they allowed their wielders to hold ashield or parrying dagger in their off hand, or to use it as a two-handed sword for a more powerful blow.[35]
In the Middle Ages, the sword was often used as a symbol of theword of God. The names given to many swords inmythology,literature, andhistory reflected the high prestige of the weapon and the wealth of the owner.[36]
From around 1300 to 1500, in concert with improvedarmour, innovative sword designs evolved more and more rapidly. The main transition was the lengthening of the grip, allowingtwo-handed use, and a longer blade. By 1400, this type of sword, at the time calledlanges Schwert (longsword) orspadone, was common, and a number of 15th- and 16th-centuryFechtbücher offering instructions on their use survive. Another variant was the specialized armour-piercing swords of theestoc type. Thelongsword became popular due to its extreme reach and its cutting and thrusting abilities.[37]
The estoc became popular because of its ability to thrust into the gaps between plates of armour.[38] The grip was sometimes wrapped in wire or coarseanimal hide to provide a better grip and to make it harder to knock a sword out of the user's hand.[39]
A number ofmanuscripts covering longsword combat and techniques dating from the 13th–16th centuries exist in German,[40] Italian, and English,[41] providing extensive information on longsword combatives as used throughout this period. Many of these are now readily available online.[40][41]
In the 16th century, the largezweihänder was used by the elite German and Swiss mercenaries known asdoppelsöldners.[42]Zweihänder, literally translated, means two-hander. Thezweihänder possesses a long blade, as well as a huge guard for protection. It is estimated that somezweihänder swords were over 6 feet (1.8 m) long, with the one ascribed toFrisian warriorPier Gerlofs Donia being 7 feet (2.13 m) long.[43] The gigantic blade length was perfectly designed for manipulating and pushing away enemypolearms, which were major weapons around this time, in both Germany and Eastern Europe.Doppelsöldners also usedkatzbalgers, which means 'cat-gutter'. Thekatzbalger's S-shaped guard and 2-foot-long (0.61 m) blade made it perfect for bringing in when the fighting became too close to use azweihänder.[44]
Civilian use of swords became increasingly common during the late Renaissance, withduels being a preferred way to honourably settle disputes.
Theside-sword was a type of war sword used by infantry during theRenaissance ofEurope. This sword was a direct descendant of theknightly sword. Quite popular between the 16th and 17th centuries, they were ideal for handling the mix of armoured and unarmoured opponents of that time. A new technique of placing one's finger on thericasso to improve the grip (a practice that would continue in therapier) led to the production of hilts with a guard for the finger. This sword design eventually led to the development of the civilian rapier, but it was not replaced by it, and the side-sword continued to be used during the rapier's lifetime. As it could be used for both cutting and thrusting, the term "cut and thrust sword" is sometimes used interchangeably with side-sword.[45] As rapiers became more popular, attempts were made to hybridize the blade, sacrificing the effectiveness found in each unique weapon design. These are still considered side-swords and are sometimes labeledsword rapier orcutting rapier by modern collectors.
Side-swords used in conjunction withbucklers became so popular that it caused the termswashbuckler to be coined. This word stems from the new fighting style of the side-sword and buckler which was filled with much "swashing and making a noise on the buckler".[46]
Within theOttoman Empire, the use of a curved sabre called theyatagan started in the mid-16th century. It would become the weapon of choice for many inTurkey and theBalkans.[47]
The sword in this time period was the most personal weapon, the most prestigious, and the most versatile for close combat, but it came to decline in military use as technology, such as thecrossbow andfirearms changed warfare. However, it maintained a key role in civilianself-defence.[48]
Thetakoba is a type of broadsword originating in the westernSahel, descended from variousByzantine andIslamic swords. It has a straight double-edged blade measuring about one meter in length, usually imported from Europe.[50][51]
Japan was famous for the swords it forged in the early 13th century for the class of warrior-nobility known as theSamurai. Western historians have said that Japanesekatana were among the finest cutting weapons in world military history.[56][57][58] The types of swords used by the Samurai included theōdachi (extra long field sword),tachi (long cavalry sword),katana (long sword), andwakizashi (shorter companion sword forkatana). Japanese swords that pre-date the rise of the samurai caste include thetsurugi (straight double-edged blade) andchokutō (straight one-edged blade).[59] Japanese swordmaking reached the height of its development in the 15th and 16th centuries, when samurai increasingly found a need for a sword to use in closer quarters, leading to the creation of the modernkatana.[60] High quality Japanese swords have been exported to neighboring Asian countries since before the 11th century. From the 15th century to the 16th century, more than 200,000 swords were exported, reaching a quantitative peak, but these were simple swords made exclusively for mass production, specialized for export and lending to conscripted farmers (ashigaru).[61][62][63]
Thekhanda is a double-edge straight sword. It is often featured in religious iconography, theatre and art depicting the ancienthistory of India. Some communities venerate the weapon as a symbol ofShiva. It is a common weapon in the martial arts in theIndian subcontinent.[64] Thekhanda often appears inHindu,Buddhist andSikh scriptures and art.[65] InSri Lanka, a unique wind furnace was used to produce the high-quality steel. This gave the blade a very hard cutting edge and beautiful patterns. For these reasons it became a very popular trading material.[66]
Thefirangi (/fəˈrɪŋɡiː/, derived from the Arabic term for a Western European, a "Frank") was a sword type which used blades manufactured in Western Europe and imported by thePortuguese, or made locally in imitation of European blades. Because of its length thefirangi is usually regarded as primarily acavalry weapon. The sword has been especially associated with theMarathas, who were famed for their cavalry. However, thefirangi was also widely used bySikhs andRajputs.[67]
Thetalwar (Hindi:तलवार) is a type of curved sword from India and other countries of theIndian subcontinent, it was adopted by communities such as Rajputs, Sikhs and Marathas, who favored the sword as their main weapon. It became more widespread in the medieval era.[68][69]
Theurumi (Tamil:சுருள் பட்டாக்கத்திsurul pattai, lit. curling blade;Sinhala:එතුණු කඩුවethunu kaduwa;Hindi:aara) is a "sword" with a flexible whip-like blade.[70]
InIndonesia, the images of Indian style swords can be found in Hindu gods statues from ancient Java circa 8th to 10th century. However the native types of blade known askris,parang,klewang andgolok were more popular as weapons. These daggers are shorter than a sword but longer than a common dagger.
In thePhilippines, traditional large swords known askampilans andpanabas were used in combat by the natives. A notable wielder of thekampilan wasLapu-Lapu, the king ofMactan and his warriors who defeated the Spaniards and killed Portuguese explorerFerdinand Magellan at theBattle of Mactan on 27 April 1521.[71] Traditional swords in the Philippines were immediately banned, but the training inswordsmanship was later hidden from the occupyingSpaniards by practices indances. But because of the banning, Filipinos were forced to use swords that were disguised as farm tools.Bolos andbaliswords were used during therevolutions against the colonialists not only because ammunition for guns was scarce, but also for concealability while walking in crowded streets and homes.Bolos were also used by young boys who joined their parents in the revolution and by young girls and their mothers in defending the town while the men were on the battlefields. During thePhilippine–American War in events such as theBattle of Balangiga, most of an American company was hacked to death or seriously injured bybolo-wielding guerillas inBalangiga, Samar.[72] When theJapanese took control of the country, several American special operations groups stationed in the Philippines were introduced toFilipino martial arts and swordsmanship, leading to this style reaching America despite the fact that natives were reluctant to allow outsiders in on their fighting secrets.[73]
A single-edged type ofsidearm used by theHussites was popularized in 16th-century Germany under its Czech namedusack, also known asSäbel auf Teutsch gefasst ("sabre fitted in the German manner").[74] A closely related weapon is theschnepf orSwiss sabre used inEarly Modern Switzerland.[75]
Thecut-and-thrustmortuary sword was used after 1625 bycavalry during theEnglish Civil War. This (usually) two-edged sword sported a half-basket hilt with a straight blade some 90–105 cm long. Later in the 17th century, the swords used by cavalry became predominantlysingle-edged. The so-calledwalloon sword (épée wallone)[76] was common in theThirty Years' War andBaroque era.[77] Its hilt was ambidextrous with shell-guards andknuckle-bow that inspired 18th-century continentalhunting hangers.[78] Following their campaign in the Netherlands in 1672, the French began producing this weapon as their first regulation sword.[79] Weapons of this design were also issued to theSwedish army from the time ofGustavus Adolphus until as late as the 1850s.[80]
Therapier is believed to have evolved either from the Spanishespada ropera or from the swords of theItalian nobility somewhere in the later part of the 16th century.[81][82] The rapier differed from most earlier swords in that it was not a military weapon but a primarily civilian sword. Both the rapier and the Italianschiavona developed the crossguard into abasket-shaped guard for hand protection.[83]
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the shortersmall sword became an essential fashion accessory in European countries and the New World, though in some places such as theScottish Highlands large swords as the basket-hilted broadsword were preferred, and most wealthy men and military officers carried one slung from a belt. Both the small sword and the rapier remained populardueling swords well into the 18th century.[84]
As the wearing of swords fell out of fashion,canes took their place in a gentleman's wardrobe. This developed to the gentlemen in the Victorian era to use theumbrella. Some examples of canes—those known as sword canes orswordsticks—incorporate a concealed blade. The Frenchmartial artla canne developed to fight with canes and swordsticks and has now evolved into a sport. The English martial artsinglestick is very similar.With the rise of thepistol duel, the duelling sword fell out of fashion long before the practice of duelling itself. By about 1770, English duelists enthusiastically adopted the pistol, and sword duels dwindled.[85] However, the custom of duelling withepées persisted well into the 20th century in France. Such modern duels were not fought to the death; the duellists' aim was instead merely to draw blood from the opponent's sword arm.[86]
Towards the end of its useful life, the sword served more as a weapon ofself-defence than for use on the battlefield, and the military importance of swords steadily decreased during theModern Age. Even as a personal sidearm, the sword began to lose its preeminence in the early 19th century, reflecting the development of reliablehandguns.[48]
However, swords were still normally carried incombat by cavalrymen and by officers of other branches throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, both in colonial and European warfare. For example, during theAceh War theAcehneseklewangs, a sword similar to themachete, proved very effective in close quarters combat with Dutch troops, leading theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Army to adopt a heavycutlass, also calledklewang (very similar in appearance to the US Navy Model 1917 Cutlass) to counter it. Mobile troops armed withcarbines and klewangs succeeded in suppressing Aceh resistance where traditional infantry withrifle andbayonet had failed. From that time on until the 1950s theRoyal Dutch East Indies Army, Royal Dutch Army, Royal Dutch Navy and Dutch police used these cutlasses called Klewang.[87][88]
British MajorJack Churchill (far right) leads commandos during a training exercise, sword in hand, inWorld War II.
Swords continued in general peacetime use by cavalry of most armies during the years prior to World War I. The British Army formally adopted a completely new design ofcavalry sword in 1908, almost the last change in British Army weapons before the outbreak of the war.[89] At the outbreak of World War I infantry officers in all combatant armies then involved (French, German, British, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Belgian and Serbian) still carried swords as part of their field equipment. On mobilization in August 1914 all serving British Army officers were required to have their swords sharpened as the only peacetime use of the weapon had been for saluting on parade.[90] The high visibility and limited practical use of the sword however led to it being abandoned within weeks, although most cavalry continued to carry sabres throughout the war. While retained as a symbol of rank and status by at least senior officers of infantry, artillery and other branches, the sword was usually left with non-essential baggage when units reached the front line.[91] It was not until the late 1920s and early 1930s that this historic weapon was finally discarded for all but ceremonial purposes by most remaining horse mounted regiments of Europe and the Americas.
In China troops used the long anti-cavalrymiao dao well into theSecond Sino-Japanese War. The last units of British heavy cavalry switched to usingarmoured vehicles as late as 1938. Swords and other dedicated melee weapons were used occasionally by many countries duringWorld War II, but typically as a secondary weapon as they were outclassed by coexistingfirearms.[92][93][94] A notable exception was the Imperial Japanese Army where, for cultural reasons, all officers and warrant officers carried theshin-gunto ("new military sword") into battle from 1934 until 1945.[95]
Swords are commonly worn as aceremonial item by officers in many military and naval services throughout the world. Occasions to wear swords include any event in dress uniforms where the rank-and-file carry arms:parades, reviews,courts-martial,tattoos, and changes of command. They are also commonly worn for officers' weddings, and when wearing dress uniforms to church—although they are rarely actually worn in the church itself.
In the British forces, swords are also worn for any appearance atCourt. In theUnited States, some Navy and Marine officers are required to own a sword, which can be prescribed for any formal outdoor ceremonial occasion. They are also worn by Non-Commissioned Officers in some circumstances.
The production of replicas of historical swords originates with 19th-centuryhistoricism.[97] Contemporary replicas can range from cheap factory produced look-alikes to exact recreations of individual artifacts, including an approximation of the historical production methods.
Some kinds of swords are still commonly used today as weapons, often as a side arm for military infantry. The Japanesekatana,wakizashi andtantō are carried by some infantry and officers in Japan and other parts of Asia and thekukri is the official melee weapon forNepal. Other swords in use today are thesabre, thescimitar, theshortsword and themachete.[98]
In the case of a rat-tailtang, the maker welds a thin rod to the end of the blade at the crossguard; this rod goes through the grip.[99]
In traditional construction, Swordsmithspeened such tangs over the end of the pommel, or occasionally welded the hilt furniture to the tang and threaded the end for screwing on a pommel. This style is often referred to as a "narrow" or "hidden" tang. Modern, less traditional, replicas often feature a threaded pommel or a pommel nut which holds the hilt together and allows dismantling.[100]
In a "full" tang (most commonly used in knives andmachetes), the tang has about the same width as the blade, and is generally the same shape as the grip.[101]
There is considerable variation in the detailed design of sword blades. The diagram opposite shows a typical Medieval European sword.
Early iron blades have rounded points due to the limited metallurgy of the time. These were still effective for thrusting against lightly armoured opponents. As armour advanced, blades were made narrower, stiffer and sharply pointed to defeat the armour by thrusting.
Dedicated cutting blades are wide and thin, and often have grooves known asfullers which lighten the blade at the cost of some of the blade's stiffness. The edges of a cutting sword are almost parallel. Blades oriented for the thrust have thicker blades, sometimes with a distinct midrib for increased stiffness, with a strong taper and an acute point. The geometry of a cutting sword blade allows for acute edge angles. An edge with an acuter angle is more inclined to degrade quickly in combat situations than an edge with a more obtuse angle. Also, an acute edge angle is not the primary factor of a blade's sharpness.[102]
The part of the blade between thecenter of percussion (CoP) and the point is called thefoible (weak) of the blade, and that between thecenter of balance (CoB) and the hilt is theforte (strong). The section in between the CoP and the CoB is themiddle.
Thericasso orshoulder identifies a short section of blade immediately below the guard that is left completely unsharpened. Many swords have no ricasso. On some large weapons, such as theGermanZweihänder, a metal cover surrounded the ricasso, and a swordsman might grip it in one hand to wield the weapon more easily in close-quarter combat.[44]The ricasso normally bears themaker's mark.
Thetang is the extension of the blade to which the hilt is fitted.
On Japanese blades, the maker's mark appears on the tang under the grip.[103]
The hilt of arapier—in this case, with a swept hilt
Thehilt is the collective term for the parts allowing for the handling and control of the blade; these consist of thegrip, thepommel, and a simple or elaborateguard, which in post-Viking Age swords could consist of only acrossguard (called acruciform hilt orquillons). The pommel was originally designed as a stop to prevent the sword slipping from the hand. From around the 11th century onward it became a counterbalance to the blade, allowing a more fluid style of fighting.[dubious –discuss][104] It can also be used as a blunt instrument at close range, and its weight affects the centre of percussion. In later times asword knot ortassel was sometimes added. By the 17th century, with the growing use of firearms and the accompanying decline in the use ofarmour, manyrapiers anddueling swords had developed elaborate basket hilts, which protect the palm of the wielder and rendered thegauntlet obsolete.[105] By contrast, Japanese swords of the early modern period customarily used a small disc guard, ortsuba.
In late medieval and Renaissance era European swords, a flap of leather called thechappe orrain guard was attached to a sword'scrossguard at the base of the hilt to protect the mouth of the scabbard and prevent water from entering.[106]
Common accessories to the sword include thescabbard andbaldric, known as a 'sword belt'.
The scabbard, also known as the sheath, is a protective cover often provided for the sword blade. Scabbards have been made of many materials, including leather, wood, and metals such as brass or steel. The metal fitting where the blade enters the leather or metal scabbard is called the throat, which is often part of a larger scabbard mount, or locket, that bears a carrying ring or stud to facilitate wearing the sword. The blade's point in leather scabbards is usually protected by a metal tip, orchape, which on both leather and metal scabbards is often given further protection from wear by an extension called a drag, or shoe.[107]
A sword belt is abelt with an attachment for the sword's scabbard, used to carry it when not in use. It is usually fixed to the scabbard of the sword, providing a fast means of drawing the sword in battle. Examples of sword belts include theBalteus used by theRoman legionary.[108] Swords and sword belts continue in use for ceremonial occasions by military forces.[109][110]
Sword typology is based on morphological criteria on the one hand (blade shape (cross-section, taper, and length), shape and size of the hilt and pommel), and age and place of origin on the other (Bronze Age,Iron Age, European (medieval, early modern, modern), Asian).
The relatively comprehensiveOakeshott typology was created by historian and illustratorEwart Oakeshott as a way to define and catalogue European swords of the medieval period based on physical form, including blade shape and hilt configuration. The typology also focuses on the smaller, and in some cases contemporary, single-handed swords such as thearming sword.[83]
In most Asian countries, a sword (jian 劍,geom (검),ken/tsurugi (剣) is a double-edged straight-bladed weapon, while a knife or sabre (dāo 刀,do (도),to/katana (刀) refers to a single-edged object.
European terminology does give generic names for single-edged and double-edged blades but refers to specific types with the term 'sword' covering them all. For example, thebacksword may be so called because it is single-edged but thefalchion which is also single-edged is given its own specific name.[112]
A two-handed sword is any sword that usually requires two hands to wield, or more specifically the very large swords of the 16th century.[104]
Throughout history two-handed swords have generally been less common than their one-handed counterparts, one exception being their common use in Japan. Two-handed grips have two advantages: obviously they allow the strength of two hands to be used, not just one, but by spacing the hands apart they also allow atorque to be applied, rotating the sword in a slashing manner.
A two-handed grip may be needed for one of two reasons: either to wield a particularly large sword or else with the single-sided Japanesetachi for a slashing cut. Slashing swords may have distinctively long hilt grips to facilitate this.
A hand and a half sword, colloquially known as a "bastard sword", was a sword with an extended grip and sometimes pommel so that it could be used with either one or two hands. Although these swords may not provide a full two-hand grip, they allowed its wielders to hold ashield or parrying dagger in their off hand, or to use it as a two-handed sword for a more powerful blow.[39] These should not be confused with alongsword,two-handed sword, orZweihänder, which were always intended to be used with two hands.
Two arms holding swords in the coat of arms ofNorth Karelia
TheVisigothic Code of Ervig (680-687) made ownership of a sword mandatory for men joining the Visigothic army, regardless of whether the men were Goth or Roman.[113] A number ofCharlemagnecapitularies made ownership of a sword mandatory, for example, those who owned a warhorse needed to also own a sword.[113]
Infantasy,magic swords often appear, based on their use in myth and legend. Thescience fiction counterpart to these is known as an energy sword (sometimes also referred to as a "beam sword" or "laser sword"), a sword whose blade consists of, or is augmented by, concentrated energy. A well known example of this type of sword is thelightsaber, shown in theStar Wars franchise.[114]
^"Pattern-Welding and Damascening of Sword-Blades: Part 1 Pattern-Welding" (Maryon 1960)[33]A brief review article by the originator of the term "pattern-welding" accurately details all the salient points of the construction of pattern-welded blades and of how all the patterns observed result as a function of the depth of grinding into a twisted rod structure. The article also includes a brief description of pattern-welding as encountered in the Malay keris. Damascus steel is also known as watered steel.
^Cognate toOld High Germanswert,Old Norsesverð, from aProto-Indo-European root*swer- "to wound, to cut". Before about 1500, the spellingswerd(e) was much more common thansword(e). The irregular loss of /w/ in English pronunciation also dates to about 1500, and is found in a small number of other words, such asanswer (cf.swear),conquer (cf.query). Charles Barber, Joan Beal, Philip Shaw,The English Language, Canto Classics, 2nd revised edition, Cambridge University Press, 2012,p. 206 (Archived 13 March 2017 at theWayback Machine). Latin hadensis,gladius andspatha; as the term for the sword used by the Late Roman army,spatha became the source of the words for "sword" inRomance languages, such as Italianspada, Iberianespada and Frenchepée. Bothgladius andspatha are loanwords in Latin;ensis was the generic term for "sword" inClassical Latin, and was again widely used in Renaissance Latin, while Middle Latin mostly usedgladius as the generic term.
^Frangipane, M. et.al. (2010). "The collapse of the 4th millennium centralised system at Arslantepe and the far-reaching changes in 3rd millennium societies".ORIGINI XXXIV, 2012: 237–60.
^Jung, R.; M. Mehofer (2008). "A sword of Naue II type from Ugarit and the Historical Significance of Italian type Weaponry in the Eastern Mediterranean",Aegean Archaeology 8, 111–36.
^Melheim, Lene; Horn, Christian (2014). "Tales of Hoards and Swordfighters in Early Bronze Age Scandinavia: The Brand New and the Broken".Norwegian Archaeological Review.47:18–41.doi:10.1080/00293652.2014.920907.ISSN0029-3652.S2CID162347126.
^Bunnefeld, Jan-Heinrich (December 2016). "Crafting Swords. The emergence and production of full-hilted swords in the Early Nordic Bronze Age".Praehistorisches Zeitschrift.91: 384 – via EBSCO host.
^Chang, K. C. (1982).Studies of Shang Archaeology. Yale University Press. pp. 6–7.ISBN978-0-300-03578-0.
^Wells, Peter (2017),How Ancient Europeans Saw the World : Vision, Patterns, and the Shaping of the Mind in Prehistoric Times, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UP, p. 124
^J.-S. Park K. Rajan R. Ramesh (2020). "High-carbon steel and ancient sword-making as observed in a double-edged sword from an Iron Age megalithic burial in Tamil Nadu, India".Archaeometry.62 (1):68–80.Bibcode:2020Archa..62...68P.doi:10.1111/arcm.12503.S2CID210305604.
^Cirlot, Juan Eduardo (2002).A Dictionary of Symbols. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 323–25.ISBN978-0-486-42523-8.
^Lindholm, David; Nicolle, David (2007).The Scandinavian Baltic Crusades 1100–1500. Osprey Publishing. p. 178.ISBN978-1-84176-988-2.
^Tarassuk, Leonid;Blair, Claude (1982).The Complete Encyclopedia of Arms & Weapons: The Most Comprehensive Reference Work Ever Published on Arms and Armour from Prehistoric Times to the Present – with Over 1,200 Illustrations.Simon & Schuster. p. 491.
^The termcut & thrust is a non-historical classification first used within TheAssociation for Renaissance Martial Arts to differentiate cutting swords with compound hilts from true rapiers.
^Mortensen, Peder; Torben Lundbæk; Kjeld von Folsach (1996).Sultan, Shah, and Great Mughal: the history and culture of the Islamic world. National Museum. p. 200.ISBN978-87-89384-31-3.
^The last known French duel of public note fought with epées took place in 1967, whenGaston Defferre insultedRené Ribière at the French Parliament and was subsequently challenged to a duel fought with swords. René Ribière lost the duel, being wounded twice."People: Apr. 28, 1967".Time. 28 April 1967. Archived fromthe original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved30 May 2010.
^Moor, Jaap de; Wesseling, H. L. (1989).Imperialism and war: essays on colonial wars in Asia and Africa. Brill. pp. 69–71.ISBN978-90-04-08834-4.
^Ion, A. Hamish; Errington, Elizabeth Jane (1993).Great powers and little wars: the limits of power. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 60.ISBN978-0-275-93965-6.
^Wilkinson-Latham, John (1966).British Military Swords from 1800 to the Present Day. Hutchinson & Co.ISBN978-0-09-081201-1.
^Tuchman, Barbara W. (1962).The Guns of August, p. 229. Constable and Co. Ltd.
^Lierneuz, Pierre (2017).The Belgian Army in the Great War. Portable Service Weapons. Verlag Militaria GmbH. p. 366.ISBN978-3-902526-86-1.
^Johnson, Thomas M. (2006).German Swords of World War II – A Photographic Reference Vol.3: DLV, Diplomats, Customs, Police and Fire, Justice, Mining, Railway, etc. Schiffer Pub Ltd.ISBN978-0-7643-2432-1.
^Regardie, Israel (1990).The Complete Golden Dawn System of Magic vol. Four (Fourth ed.). Scottsdale, Arizona: New Falcon Publications (Falcon Press). p. 33.ISBN978-0-941404-12-9.
^Gabbay, Dov M.; Anthonie Meijers; Paul Thagard; John Woods (2009).Philosophy of Technology and Engineering Sciences. Elsevier Publishing. p. 1208.ISBN978-0-444-51667-1.
^"39. ROYAL NAVY OFFICERS AND RATINGS, Annex 39A: RN Dress Tables".Royal Navy Book of Reference(PDF) (Report) (9 ed.). October 2018. p. 39A-1,39A-33. BRd3(1).
^Singh Jiwan Singh; B. Chatter (2001).The turban and the sword of the Sikhs: Essence of Sikhism. AmritsarISBN81-7601-491-5
^Oakeshott, Ewart (1980).European Weapons and Armour. Guildford & London: Lutterworth Press. p. 152.
^abDeVries, Kelly; Smith, Robert Douglas (2012).Medieval Military Technology. University of Toronto Press. p. 20.ISBN9781442604971.
Burton, Richard F. (2008).The Book of The Sword. Cosimo, Inc.ISBN1-60520-436-6.
Comnena, Anna (1928).The Alexiad (Archived 6 November 2014 at theWayback Machine). Ed. and trans. Elizabeth A. Dawes. London: Routledge. Via the Internet History Sourcebook.
Deutscher, Lisa; Kaiser, Mirjam; Wetzler, Sixt, eds. (2019).The Sword: Form and Thought. Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press.ISBN978-1-78327-427-7.
Edgerton, Wilbraham Egerton; et al. (2002).Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour. Mineola, N.Y.: Courier Dover Publications.ISBN0-486-42229-1.OCLC49225703.
Evangelista, Nick (1995).The Encyclopedia of the Sword. Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-313-27896-9.
Gravett, Christopher (1997).German Medieval Armies 1000-1300. Osprey Publishing.ISBN978-1-85532-657-6.
Green, Thomas A. (2001).Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO.ISBN1-57607-150-2.
Kirkland, J. Michael (2006).Stage Combat Resource Materials: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN0-313-30710-5.
McLean, Will; Forgeng, Jeffrey L. (2008).Daily life in Chaucer's England. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-0-313-35951-4.
Naish, Camille (1991).Death Comes to The Maiden: Sex and Execution, 1431–1933. Taylor & Francis Publishing.ISBN0-415-05585-7.
Prasad, Prakash Chandra (2003).Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India. Abhinav Publications.ISBN81-7017-053-2.
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