| Swing | |
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| Stylistic origins | |
| Cultural origins | 1930s, United States |
| Derivative forms | |
| Subgenres | |
| Swing revival | |
| Fusion genres | |
| Electro swing | |
| Regional scenes | |
| Western swing | |
Swing music is a style ofjazz that developed in the United States during the late 1920s and early 1930s. It became nationally popular from the mid-1930s. Swing bands usually featuredsoloists who would improvise on the melody over thearrangement. The danceable swing style ofbig bands andbandleaders such asFletcher Henderson andBenny Goodman was the dominant form of American popular music from 1935 to 1946, known as the swing era, when people were dancing theLindy Hop. The verb "toswing" is also used as a term of praise for playing that has a stronggroove or drive. Big band leaders of the swing era include Benny Goodman,Duke Ellington,Count Basie,Jimmie Lunceford,Cab Calloway,Benny Carter,Jimmy Dorsey,Tommy Dorsey,Earl Hines,Bunny Berigan,Harry James,Lionel Hampton,Glenn Miller, andArtie Shaw.
Swing has its roots in 1920s dance musicensembles, which began using new styles of written arrangements, incorporating rhythmic innovations pioneered byLouis Armstrong,Coleman Hawkins,Benny Carter and other jazzmen.[1] During the World War II era, swing began to decline in popularity, and after the war,bebop andjump blues gained popularity.[2]
Swing blended with other genres to create new musical styles. Incountry music, artists such asJimmie Rodgers,Moon Mullican,Milton Brown andBob Wills introduced elements of swing along withblues to create a genre called "western swing".[3] Famousroma guitaristDjango Reinhardt createdgypsy swing music[4] and composed the gypsy swing standard "Minor Swing".[5] In the late 1980s to early 1990s, newurban-styled swing-beat emerged callednew jack swing (New York go-go), created by young producerTeddy Riley.[6][relevant?] In the late 1990s and into the 2000s, there was aswing revival, led bySquirrel Nut Zippers,[7]Brian Setzer orchestra andBig Bad Voodoo Daddy.[8]
Developments in dance orchestra and jazz music during the 1920s both contributed to the development of the 1930s swing style. Starting in 1923, theFletcher Henderson Orchestra featured innovative arrangements byDon Redman that featuredcall-response interplay betweenbrass andreed sections, and interludes arranged to back up soloists. The arrangements also had a smoother rhythmic sense than theragtime-influenced arrangements that were the more typical "hot" dance music of the day.[9] In 1924Louis Armstrong joined the Henderson band, lending impetus to an even greater emphasis on soloists. The Henderson band also featuredColeman Hawkins,Benny Carter, andBuster Bailey as soloists, who all were influential in the development of swing era instrumental styles. During the Henderson band's extended residency at theRoseland Ballroom in New York, it became influential on other big bands.Duke Ellington credited the Henderson band with being an early influence when he was developing the sound for his own band.[9] In 1925 Armstrong left the Henderson band and would add his innovations toNew Orleans style jazz to developChicago style jazz, another step towards swing.
Traditional New Orleans style jazz was based on a two-beat meter andcontrapuntal improvisation led by atrumpet orcornet, typically followed by aclarinet andtrombone in a call-response pattern. Therhythm section consisted of asousaphone and drums, and sometimes abanjo. By the early 1920sguitars andpianos sometimes substituted for the banjo and astring bass sometimes substituted for the sousaphone. Use of the string bass opened possibilities for 4/4 instead of 2/4 time at fastertempos, which increasedrhythmic freedom. The Chicago style released the soloist from the constraints ofcontrapuntal improvisation with other front-line instruments, lending greater freedom in creatingmelodic lines. Louis Armstrong used the additional freedom of the new format with 4/4 time, accenting the second and fourthbeats and anticipating the main beats with lead-in notes in his solos to create a sense of rhythmic pulse that happened between the beats as well as on them, i.e.swing.[10]
In 1927 Armstrong worked with pianistEarl Hines, who had a similar impact on his instrument as Armstrong had on trumpet. Hines' melodic,horn-like conception of playing deviated from the contemporary conventions in jazz piano centered on building rhythmic patterns around "pivot notes". His approaches to rhythm and phrasing were also free and daring, exploring ideas that would define swing playing. His approach to rhythm often used accents on the lead-in instead of the main beat, andmixed meters, to build a sense of anticipation to the rhythm and make his playing swing. He also used "stops" or musical silences to build tension in his phrasing.[11][12] Hines' style was a seminal influence on the styles of swing-era pianistsTeddy Wilson,Art Tatum,Jess Stacy,Nat "King" Cole,Erroll Garner,Mary Lou Williams, andJay McShann.
Blackterritory dance bands in the southwest were developing dynamic styles that often went in the direction of blues-based simplicity, usingriffs in a call-response pattern to build a strong, danceable rhythm and provide a musical platform for extended solos.[13] The rhythm-heavy tunes for dancing were called "stomps". The requirement for volume led to continued use of the sousaphone over the string bass with the larger ensembles, which dictated a more conservative approach to rhythm based on 2/4time signatures. Meanwhile, string bass players such asWalter Page were developing their technique to the point where they could hold down the bottom end of a full-sized dance orchestra.[14]
The growth ofradio broadcasting and therecording industry in the 1920s allowed some of the more popular dance bands to gain national exposure. The most popular style of dance orchestra was the "sweet" style, often with strings.Paul Whiteman developed a style he called "symphonic jazz", grafting a classical approach over his interpretation of jazz rhythms in an approach he hoped would be the future of jazz.[15][16] Whiteman's Orchestra enjoyed great commercial success and was a major influence on the sweet bands.Jean Goldkette'sVictor Recording Orchestra featured many of the top white jazz musicians of the day includingBix Beiderbecke,Jimmy Dorsey,Frank Trumbauer,Pee Wee Russell,Eddie Lang, andJoe Venuti. The Victor Recording Orchestra won the respect of the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in aBattle of the Bands; Henderson's cornetistRex Stewart credited the Goldkette band with being the most influential white band in the development of swing music before Benny Goodman's.[17][18] As a dance music promoter and agent, Goldkette also helped organize and promoteMcKinney's Cotton Pickers andGlen Gray's Orange Blossoms (later theCasa Loma Orchestra), two otherDetroit-area bands that were influential in the early swing era.
As the 1920s turned to the 1930s, the new concepts in rhythm and ensemble playing that comprised the swing style were transforming the sounds of large and small bands. Starting in 1928,the Earl Hines Orchestra was broadcast throughout much of theMidwest from theGrand Terrace Cafe in Chicago, where Hines had the opportunity to expound upon his new approaches to rhythm and phrasing with a big band. Hines' arrangerJimmy Mundy would later contribute to the catalog of theBenny Goodman Orchestra. TheDuke Ellington Orchestra had its new sounds broadcast nationally from New York'sCotton Club, followed by theCab Calloway Orchestra and theJimmie Lunceford Orchestra. Also in New York, theFletcher Henderson Orchestra featured the new style at theRoseland Ballroom and the swing powerhouseChick Webb Orchestra started its extended stay at theSavoy Ballroom in 1931.[19]Bennie Moten and the Kansas City Orchestra showcased theriff-propelled, solo-oriented form of swing that had been developing in the hothouse of Kansas City.[20][21] Emblematic of the evolving music was the change in the name of Moten's signature tune, from "Moten Stomp" to "Moten Swing". Moten's orchestra had a highly successful tour in late 1932. Audiences raved about the new music, and at thePearl Theatre in Philadelphia in December 1932, the doors were let open to the public who crammed into the theatre to hear the new sound, demanding seven encores from Moten's orchestra.[14]
With the early 1930s came the financial difficulties of theGreat Depression that curtailed recording of the new music and drove some bands out of business, including theFletcher Henderson Orchestra andMcKinney's Cotton Pickers in 1934. Henderson's next business was selling arrangements to up-and-coming bandleaderBenny Goodman.
At this time, "sweet" dance music remained most popular with white audiences and was successfully showcased by bandleaders such asGuy Lombardo[22][23] andShep Fields,[24] but theCasa Loma Orchestra and the Benny Goodman Orchestra went against that grain, targeting the new swing style to younger audiences. DespiteBenny Goodman's claim that "sweet" music was a "weak sister" as compared to the "real music" of America, Lombardo's band enjoyed widespread popularity for decades while crossing over racial divides and was even praised byLouis Armstrong as one of his favorites.[23][25]
In 1935 the Benny Goodman Orchestra had won a spot on the radio showLet's Dance and started showcasing an updated repertoire featuringFletcher Henderson arrangements. Goodman's slot was after midnight in the East, and few people heard it. It was on earlier on the West Coast and developed the audience that later led to Goodman'sPalomar Ballroom triumph. At the Palomar engagement starting on 21 August 1935, audiences of young white dancers favored Goodman's rhythm and daring arrangements. The sudden success of the Goodman orchestra transformed the landscape of popular music in America. Goodman's success with "hot" swing brought forth imitators and enthusiasts of the new style throughout the world of dance bands, which launched the "swing era" that lasted until 1946.[26]
A typical song played in swing style would feature a strong, anchoring rhythm section in support of more loosely-tied woodwind and brass sections playingcall-response to each other. The level of improvisation that the audience might expect varied with the arrangement, song, band, and band-leader. Typically included in big band swing arrangements were an introductory chorus that stated the theme, choruses arranged for soloists, and climactic out-choruses. Some arrangements were built entirely around a featured soloist or vocalist. Some bands used string or vocal sections, or both. Swing-era repertoire included theGreat American Songbook ofTin Pan Alley standards, band originals, traditional jazz tunes such as the "King Porter Stomp", with which the Goodman orchestra had a smash hit, andblues.
Hot swing music is strongly associated with thejitterbug dancing that became a national craze accompanying the swing craze. Swing dancing originated in the late 1920s as the "Lindy Hop", and would later incorporate other styles includingThe Suzie Q, Truckin', Peckin'Jive,The Big Apple, andThe Shag in various combinations of moves. A subculture of jitterbuggers, sometimes growing quite competitive, congregated around ballrooms that featured hot swing music. A dance floor full of jitterbuggers had cinematic appeal; they were sometimes featured in newsreels and movies. Some of the top jitterbuggers gathered in professional dance troupes such asWhitey's Lindy Hoppers, featured in the filmsEverybody Dance (1936),A Day At the Races (1937), andHellzapoppin' (1941).Swing dancing would outlive the swing era, becoming associated withR&B and earlyRock&Roll.
As with many new popular musical styles, swing met with some resistance because of its improvisation, tempo, occasionally risqué lyrics, and freneticdancing. Audiences used to traditional "sweet" arrangements, such as those offered byGuy Lombardo,Sammy Kaye,Kay Kyser andShep Fields, were taken aback by the rambunctiousness of swing music. Swing was sometimes regarded as light entertainment, more of an industry to sell records to the masses than a form of art, among fans of both jazz and "serious" music. Some jazz critics such asHugues Panassié held the polyphonic improvisation of New Orleans jazz to be the pure form of jazz, with swing a form corrupted by regimentation and commercialism. Panassié was also an advocate of the theory that jazz was a primal expression of the black American experience and that white musicians, or black musicians who became interested in more sophisticated musical ideas, were generally incapable of expressing its core values.[27] In his 1941 autobiography,W. C. Handy wrote that "prominent white orchestra leaders, concert singers and others are making commercial use of Negro music in its various phases. That's why they introduced 'swing' which is not a musical form" (no comment on Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Duke Ellington, or Count Basie).[28] TheDixieland revival started in the late 1930s as a self-conscious re-creation of New Orleans jazz in reaction against the orchestrated style of big band swing. Some swing bandleaders saw opportunities in the Dixieland revival.Tommy Dorsey's Clambake Seven andBob Crosby's Bobcats were examples of Dixieland ensembles within big swing bands.
Between the poles of hot and sweet,middlebrow interpretations of swing led to great commercial success for bands such as those led byArtie Shaw,Glenn Miller andTommy Dorsey. Miller's trademark clarinet-led reed section was decidedly "sweet", but the Miller catalog had no shortage of bouncy, medium-tempo dance tunes and some up-tempo tunes such as "Mission to Moscow" and theLionel Hampton composition "Flying Home". "The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing" Tommy Dorsey made a nod to the hot side by hiring jazz trumpeter and Goodman alumnusBunny Berigan, then hiringJimmie Lunceford's arrangerSy Oliver to spice up his catalog in 1939.
New York became a touchstone for national success of big bands, with nationally broadcast engagements at theRoseland andSavoy ballrooms a sign that a swing band had arrived on the national scene. With its Savoy engagement in 1937, theCount Basie Orchestra brought the riff-and-solo oriented Kansas City style of swing to national attention. The Basie orchestra collectively and individually would influence later styles that would give rise to the smaller "jump" bands andbebop. TheChick Webb Orchestra remained closely identified with the Savoy Ballroom, having originated the tune "Stompin' at the Savoy", and became feared in the Savoy's Battles of the Bands. It humiliated Goodman's band,[19] and had memorable encounters with the Ellington and Basie bands. The Goodman band's1938 Carnegie Hall Concert turned into a summit of swing, with guests from the Basie and Ellington bands invited for a jam session after the Goodman band's performance.Coleman Hawkins arrived back from an extended stay in Europe to New York in 1939, recorded his famous version of "Body and Soul", and fronted his own big band. 1940 saw top-flight musicians such asCharlie Parker,Dizzy Gillespie,Don Byas,Charlie Christian, andGene Ramey, whose careers in swing had brought them to New York, beginning to coalesce and develop the ideas that would becomebebop.
The early 1940s saw emerging trends in popular music and jazz that would, once they had run their course, result in the end of the swing era. Vocalists were becoming the star attractions of the big bands. VocalistElla Fitzgerald, after joining the Chick Webb Orchestra in 1936, propelled the band to great popularity and the band continued under her name after Webb's death in 1939. In 1940 vocalistVaughn Monroe was leading his own big band andFrank Sinatra was becoming the star attraction of the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, inciting mass hysteria amongbobby-soxers. VocalistPeggy Lee joined the Goodman Orchestra in 1941 for a two-year stint, quickly becoming its star attraction on its biggest hits. Some big bands were moving away from the swing styles that dominated the late 1930s, for both commercial and creative reasons. Some of the more commercial big bands catered to more "sweet" sensibilities with string sections. Some bandleaders such asJohn Kirby,Raymond Scott, andClaude Thornhill were fusing swing with classical repertoire. Lower manpower requirements and simplicity favored the rise of small band swing. TheSavoy Sultans and other smaller bands led byLouis Jordan,Lucky Millinder,Louis Prima, andTony Pastor were showcasing an exuberant "jump swing" style that would lead to the postwar rise ofR&B. In a 1939DownBeat article, Duke Ellington expressed dissatisfaction with the creative state of swing music;[29] within a few years he and other bandleaders would be delving into more ambitious, and less danceable, forms oforchestral jazz and the creative forefront for soloists would be moving into smaller ensembles and bebop.The Earl Hines Orchestra in 1943 featured a collection of young, forward-looking musicians who were at the core of thebebop movement and would in the following year be in theBilly Eckstine Orchestra, the first big band to showcase bebop. As the swing era went into decline, it secured legacies in vocalist-centered popular music, "progressive" big band jazz, R&B, and bebop.
The trend away from big-band swing was accelerated by wartime conditions and royalty conflicts.[30] In 1941 theAmerican Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) demanded bigger royalties from broadcasters and the broadcasters refused. Consequently, ASCAP banned the large repertoire they controlled from airplay, severely restricting what the radio audience could hear. ASCAP also demanded pre-approval of set lists and even written solos for live broadcasts, to assure that not even a quoted fragment of ASCAP repertoire was broadcast. Those restrictions made broadcast swing much less appealing for the year in which the ban was in place. Big band swing remained popular during the war years, but the resources required to support it became problematic. Wartime restriction on travel, coupled with rising expenses, curtailed road touring. The manpower requirements for big swing bands placed a burden on the scarce resources available for touring and were impacted by the military draft. In July 1942 theAmerican Federation of Musicians called aban on recording untilrecord labels agreed to pay royalties to musicians. That stopped recording of instrumental music for major labels for over a year, with the last labels agreeing to new contract terms in November 1944. In the meantime, vocalists continued to record backed by vocal groups and the recording industry released earlier swing recordings from their vaults, increasingly reflecting the popularity of big band vocalists. In 1943Columbia Records re-released the 1939 recording of "All or Nothing at All" by theHarry James Orchestra with Frank Sinatra, giving Sinatra top billing ("Acc. Harry James and his Orchestra"). The recording found the commercial success that had eluded its original release. Small band swing was recorded forsmall specialty labels not affected by the ban. These labels had limited distribution centered in large urban markets, which tended to limit the size of the ensembles with which recording could be a money-making proposition. Another blow fell on the market for dance-oriented swing in 1944 when the federal government levied a 30% excise tax on "dancing" nightclubs, undercutting the market for dance music in smaller venues.[31]
Swing bands and sales continued to decline from 1953 to 1954. In 1955, a list of top recording artists from the previous year was publicly released. The list revealed that big band sales had decreased since the early 1950s.[32] However, big band music saw a revival in the 1950s and 1960s. One impetus was the demand for studio and stage orchestras as backups for popular vocalists, and in radio and television broadcasts. Ability to adapt performing styles to various situations was an essential skill among these bands-for-hire, with a somewhat sedated version of swing in common use for backing up vocalists. The resurgent commercial success ofFrank Sinatra with a mildly swinging backup during the mid-1950s solidified the trend. It became a sound associated with pop vocalists such asBobby Darin,Dean Martin,Judy Garland, andNat King Cole, as well as jazz-oriented vocalists such asElla Fitzgerald andKeely Smith. Many of these singers were also involved in the "less swinging" vocal pop music of this period. The bands in these contexts performed in relative anonymity, receiving secondary credit beneath the top billing. Some, such as theNelson Riddle andGordon Jenkins Orchestras, became well known in their own right, with Riddle particularly associated with the success of Sinatra and Cole. Swingin' pop remained popular into the mid-1960s, becoming one current of the "easy listening" genre.
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Big band jazz made a comeback as well. TheStan Kenton andWoody Herman bands maintained their popularity during lean years of the late 1940s and beyond, making their mark with innovative arrangements and high-level jazz soloists (Shorty Rogers,Art Pepper,Kai Winding,Stan Getz,Al Cohn,Zoot Sims,Serge Chaloff,Gene Ammons,Sal Nistico). Lionel Hampton was a leader in theR&B genre during the late 1940s then re-entered big band jazz in the early 1950s, remaining a popular attraction through the 1960s.Count Basie andDuke Ellington had both downsized their big bands during the first half of the 1950s, then reconstituted them by 1956. Ellington's venture back into big band jazz was encouraged by its reception at the1956 Newport Jazz Festival. The Basie and Ellington bands flourished creatively and commercially through the 1960s and beyond, with both veteran leaders receiving high acclaim for their contemporary work and performing until they were physically unable. DrummerBuddy Rich, after briefly leading one big band during the late 1940s and performing in various jazz and big band gigs, formed his definitive big band in 1966. His name became synonymous with the dynamic, exuberant style of his big band. Other big jazz bands that drove the 1950s–1960s revival include those led byThad Jones,Mel Lewis,Quincy Jones, andOliver Nelson. Big band jazz remains a major component of college jazz instruction curricula.
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In country musicJimmie Rodgers,Moon Mullican, andBob Wills combined elements of swing and blues to create aWestern swing. Mullican left theCliff Bruner band to pursue solo career that included many songs that maintained a swing structure. Artists likeWillie Nelson andAsleep at the Wheel have continued the swing elements of country music. Asleep at the Wheel has also recorded the Count Basie tunes "One O'Clock Jump", "Jumpin' at the Woodside", and "Song of the Wanderer" using a steel guitar as a stand-in for a horn section.Nat King Cole followed Sinatra into pop music, bringing with him a similar combination of swing and ballads. Like Mullican, he was important in bringing piano to the fore of popular music.
Gypsy swing is an outgrowth of thejazz violin swing ofJoe Venuti andEddie Lang. In Europe it was heard in the music of guitaristDjango Reinhardt and violinistStéphane Grappelli. Their repertoire overlaps 1930s swing, including French popular music, gypsy songs, and compositions by Reinhardt, but gypsy swing bands are formulated differently. There is no brass or percussion; guitars and bass form the backbone, with violin, accordion, clarinet or guitar taking the lead. Gypsy swing groups generally have no more than five players. Although they originated in different continents, similarities have often been noted between gypsy swing and Western swing, leading to various fusions.
Rock music hitmakers likeFats Domino andElvis Presley included swing-era standards in their repertoire, makingcrooning ballads "Are You Lonesome Tonight" and "My Blue Heaven" into rock and roll-era hits. Thedoo-wop vocal groupthe Marcels had a big hit with their lively version of the swing-era ballad "Blue Moon".
Multi-genre mandolinistJethro Burns is known for playing swing, jazz, and other forms of the genre on the mandolin. He produced albums that feature jazz rhythms and swing chord progressions. He is often considered "The Father of Jazz Mandolin".
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Though swing music was no longer mainstream, fans could attend "Big Band Nostalgia" tours from the 1970s into the 1980s. The tours featured bandleaders and vocalists of the swing era who were semi-retired, such as Harry James and vocalist Dick Haymes. Historically-themed radio broadcasts featuring period comedy, melodrama, and music also played a role in sustaining interest in the music of the swing era.
Dan Hicks and His Hot Licks, and laterDavid Grisman, presented adaptations of gypsy swing, rekindling interest in the musical form. Otherswing revivals occurred during the 1970s. The jazz, R&B, and swing revival vocal groupthe Manhattan Transfer andBette Midler included swing era hits on their albums during the early 1970s. In Seattle the New Deal Rhythm Band revived 1930s swing with a dose of comedy behind vocalists Phil "De Basket" Shallat andCheryl "Benzene" Bentyne. Bentyne would leave the New Deal Rhythm Band in 1978 for her long career with Manhattan Transfer. Founding leader of the New Deal Rhythm BandJohn Holte led swing revival bands in the Seattle area until 2003.
A swing revival occurred during the 1990s and 2000s led byRoyal Crown Revue,Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, theCherry Poppin' Daddies,Squirrel Nut Zippers,Lavay Smith, andBrian Setzer. Many of the bands playedneo-swing which combined swing withrockabilly,ska, and rock. The music brought a revival in swing dancing.
In 2001Robbie Williams's albumSwing When You're Winning consisted mainly of popular swing covers. The album sold more than 7 million copies worldwide. In November 2013, Robbie Williams releasedSwings Both Ways.
Another modern development consists of fusing swing (original, or remixes of classics) withhip hop andhouse techniques. "Swing house" is a sub genre of swing that has been influenced by the likes of Louis Jordan and Louis Prima.Electro swing is mainly popular in Europe, and electro swing artists incorporate influences such astango and Django Reinhardt's gypsy swing. Leading artists includeCaravan Palace andParov Stelar, who became popular in the late 2010s. Musically, electro swing is a misnomer as it usually samples music from the earlierCharleston era of the 1920s and doesn't actuallyswing. Both genres of swing house and electro swing have been connected with the revival of swing dances, such as theLindy Hop.[citation needed]
It's not so very difficult to understand the evolution of Jazz into Swing. Ten years ago ... this type of music was flourishing, albeit amidst adverse conditions and surrounded by hearty indifference ... It is the repetition and monotony of the present day swing arrangements which bode ill for the future.
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