Sweden,[f] formally theKingdom of Sweden,[g][h] is aNordic country located on theScandinavian Peninsula inNorthern Europe. It bordersNorway to the west and north, andFinland to the east. At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi),[4] Sweden is the largest Nordic country by both area and population, and is thefifth-largest country in Europe. Its capital and largest city isStockholm. Sweden has a population of 10.6 million, and a low population density of 25.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (66/sq mi); 88% ofSwedes reside in urban areas.[14] They are mostly in the central and southern half of the country. Sweden's urban areas together cover 1.5% of its land area. Sweden has a diverseclimate owing to the length of the country, which ranges from55°N to69°N.
Sweden has been inhabited sinceprehistoric times around 12,000 BC. The inhabitants emerged as theGeats (Swedish:Götar) andSwedes (Svear), who formed part of the sea-faring peoples known as theNorsemen. A unified Swedish state was established during the late 10th century. In 1397, Sweden joined Norway and Denmark to form the ScandinavianKalmar Union,[15] which Sweden left in 1523. When Sweden became involved in theThirty Years' War on the Protestant side, an expansion of its territories began, forming theSwedish Empire, which remained one of thegreat powers of Europe until the early 18th century. During this era Swedencontrolled much of the Baltic Sea. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost toImperial Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into apersonal union, a union which lasted until 1905.
The name for Sweden is generally agreed to derive from theProto-Indo-European root*s(w)e, meaning 'one's own', referring to one's own tribe from the tribal period.[19][20][21] The native Swedish name,Sverige (a compound of the wordsSvea andrike, first recorded in the cognateSwēorice inBeowulf),[22] translates as "realm of theSwedes", which excluded theGeats inGötaland.
The contemporary English variation was derived in the 17th century fromMiddle Dutch andMiddle Low German. As early as 1287, references are found in Middle Dutch referring to alande van sweden ("land of [the] Swedes"), withswede as the singular form.[23] InOld English the country was known asSwéoland orSwíoríce, and inEarly Modern English asSwedeland.[24] SomeFinnic languages, such asFinnish andEstonian, use the termsRuotsi andRootsi; these variations refer to theRus' people who inhabited the coastal areas ofRoslagen inUppland and who gave their name to Russia.[25]
Sweden and its people were first described by the Roman historianPublius Cornelius Tacitus in hisGermania (98 AD).[28] InGermania 44 and 45 he mentions the Swedes (Suiones) as a powerful tribe with ships that had aprow at each end (longships).[29] Which kings (*kuningaz) ruled these Suiones is unknown, butNorse mythology presents a long line of legendary and semi-legendary kings going back to the last centuries BC. Therunic script was in use among the south Scandinavian elite by at least the second century AD, but all that has survived from the Roman Period is curt inscriptions demonstrating that the people of south Scandinavia spokeProto-Norse at the time, a language ancestral to Swedish and otherNorth Germanic languages.[30]
In the sixth century, the Byzantine historianJordanes names two tribes living inScandza, both of which are now considered to be synonymous with the Swedes: theSuetidi andSuehans.[31] TheSuehans were known to the Roman world as suppliers of black fox skins and, according to Jordanes, had very fine horses, similar to those of theThyringi ofGermania ("alia vero gens ibi moratur Suehans, quae velud Thyringi equis utuntur eximiis").
The SwedishViking Age lasted roughly from the eighth century to the 11th century. It is believed that Swedish Vikings andGutar mainly travelled east and south, going to Finland, Estonia, theBaltic countries, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, theBlack Sea and even as far asBaghdad. Their routes passedthrough the Dnieper south toConstantinople, on which they carried out numerous raids. TheByzantine emperorTheophilos noticed their great skills in war and invited them to serve as his personal bodyguard, known as theVarangian Guard. The Swedish Vikings, calledRus, are believed to be the founders ofKievan Rus'.[32] The Vikings were described by many outside sources, such as the Arab travelerIbn Fadlan.[33] The actions of theseSwedish Vikings are commemorated on manyrunestones in Sweden, such as theGreece runestones and theVarangian runestones. There was also considerable participation in expeditions westwards, which are commemorated on stones such as theEngland runestones. The last major Swedish Viking expedition appears to have been the ill-fated expedition ofIngvar the Far-Travelled toSerkland, the region south-east of theCaspian Sea. Its members are commemorated on theIngvar runestones, none of which mentions any survivor.[34]
During the early stages of the Viking Age, a centre of trade inNorthern Europe developed atBirka on the island ofBjörkö, not far from where Stockholm was later constructed, in mid-latitude Sweden. Birka was founded around 750 AD as a trading port by a king or merchants trying to control trade.[35] Birka was theBaltic link in theDnieper trade route throughLadoga (Aldeigja) andNovgorod (Holmsgard) to theByzantine Empire and theAbbasid Caliphate.[36] It was abandoned around 975, at about the same timeSigtuna was founded as a town some 35 km to the northeast. It has been estimated that the population in Viking Age Birka was between 500 and 1000 people.[35] Archaeological finds indicate that Birka still was wealthy in the 9th and 10th centuries. Thousands of graves, coins, jewelry and other luxury items have been found there.[37]
The exact age of the kingdom of Sweden is unknown.[38] Determining its age depends mostly on whether Sweden is considered a nation when theSvear (Swedes) ruled Svealand or when theSvear and theGötar (Geats) of Götaland were united under a single ruler. Svealand was described byTacitus in 98 AD as being under a single ruler, though it is unknown how long this had been the case. The epic poemBeowulf describes semi-legendarySwedish-Geatish wars in the sixth century.
However, historians typically start the line ofSwedish monarchs from when Svealand and Götaland were ruled under the same king, namelyErik the Victorious and his sonOlof Skötkonung in the tenth century. These events are often described as theconsolidation of Sweden, although substantial areas were conquered and incorporated later. In this context, "Götaland" primarily refers to the provinces ofÖstergötland andVästergötland.Småland was of little interest at the time due to its deep pine forests, with only the city ofKalmar and its castle holding any significant importance. There were also Swedish settlements along the southern coastline ofNorrland, one of the fourlands of Sweden.[39]
Saint Ansgar is traditionally credited with introducing Christianity to Sweden in 829, but the new religion did not begin to fully replacepaganism until the 12th century. During that century, Sweden was undergoing dynastic struggles between theErik andSverker clans. The conflict ended when a third clan married into the Erik clan, founding theBjälbo dynasty, which gradually consolidated Sweden into a stronger state. According to theLegend ofSaint Erik and theErik's Chronicle, Swedish kings conducteda series of Crusades to pagan Finland and started conflicts with theRus', who by then had no further connections with Sweden.[40] As a result of the Crusades, mostly with the Second Swedish Crusade led byBirger Jarl[41] Finland gradually became part of the kingdom of Sweden and the sphere of influence of theCatholic Church.[42] The Swedes built fortresses inTavastland andÅbo, while a Swedish royal council was instituted, an administrative structure and fiscal apparatus was created, and law codes were codified during the reigns ofMagnus Ladulås (1275–1290) andMagnus Eriksson (1319–1364).[43] As a result, the Finnish lands were firmly integrated into the Swedish realm.[44]
Except for the provinces of Scania, Blekinge, and Halland in the southwest of the Scandinavian peninsula, which were part of the Kingdom of Denmark during this period,feudalism never developed in Sweden as it did in much of Europe.[45] As a result, the peasantry remained largely a class of free farmers throughout most of Swedish history.Slavery, also known asthralldom, was not common in Sweden,[46] and the institution gradually diminished due to the spread of Christianity, the difficulty of obtaining slaves from lands east of the Baltic Sea, and by the development of cities before the 16th century.[47] Indeed, both slavery andserfdom were abolished altogether by a decree of KingMagnus Eriksson in 1335. Sweden remained a poor and economically underdeveloped country, where barter was the primary means of exchange.[48]
In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united in apersonal union under King Magnus Eriksson, the grandson of KingMagnus Ladulås of Sweden and of KingHaakon V of Norway. Magnus Eriksson also ruled Scania from 1332 to 1360. In the mid-14th century, Sweden was struck by theBlack Death.[49] The population of Sweden and most of Europe was decimated. The population did not reach its pre-1348 levels until the beginning of the 19th century, with one third of the population dying between 1349 and 1351. During this period, the cities began to acquire greater rights and were heavily influenced by German merchants of theHanseatic League, active especially atVisby. In 1397, QueenMargaret I of Denmark (the former daughter-in-law of Magnus Eriksson) established the personal union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark through theKalmar Union. However, Margaret's successors, whose rule was centred in Denmark, were unable to control the Swedish nobility.
In 1520, KingChristian II of Denmark, who attempted to restore the Union of Kalmar through military force, ordered the massacre of Swedish nobles in Stockholm, an event known as the "Stockholm Bloodbath." This atrocity incited the Swedish nobility to renew their resistance, and on 6 June 1523 (now celebrated asSweden's National Day), they madeGustav Vasa their king.[50] This is sometimes considered as thefoundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards the new king rejected Catholicism and led Sweden into theProtestant Reformation.[50] The termriksdag was used for the first time in the 1540s, although the first meeting where representatives of different social groups were called to discuss and determine affairs affecting the country as a whole took place as early as 1435, in the town ofArboga.[51] During theRiksdag assemblies of 1527 and 1544, under King Gustav Vasa, representatives of all fourestates of the realm (clergy,nobility,townsmen andpeasants) were called on to participate for the first time.[51] The monarchy became hereditary in 1544.[52] When Gustav Vasa broke the monopoly power of theHanseatic League, he was regarded as a hero by the Swedish people.[53] Furthermore, when Sweden became more developed, after breaking the trade monopoly of the Hanseatic League, and entered its golden age, the fact that the peasantry had traditionally been free meant that a greater share of the economic benefits went to them rather than to a feudal landowning class.[54]
The end of the 16th century was marked by a final phase of rivalry between the remaining Catholics and the new Protestant communities. In 1592, Gustav Vasa's Catholic grandson andking of Poland,Sigismund, ascended the Swedish throne.[55] He pursued to strengthenRome's influence by initiatingCounter-Reformation and created a dual monarchy that temporarily became known as thePolish-Swedish Union. His despotic rule, strongly characterised by intolerance towards the Protestants, sparked acivil war that plunged Sweden into poverty.[56] In opposition, Sigismund's uncle and successor,Charles Vasa, summoned theUppsala Synod in 1593 which officially confirmed the modernChurch of Sweden asLutheran. Following hisdeposition in 1599, Sigismund attempted to reclaim the throne sparing no expense, and hostilities betweenPoland and Sweden continued for the next hundred years.[57]
Sweden rose to prominence on a continental scale during the reign of kingGustavus Adolphus, seizing territories fromRussia and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in multiple conflicts.[58] During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden conquered approximately half of the Holy Roman states and defeated the Imperial army at theBattle of Breitenfeld in 1631.[59] Gustavus Adolphus planned to become the newHoly Roman Emperor, ruling over a united Scandinavia and the Holy Roman states, but he was killed at theBattle of Lützen in 1632. After theBattle of Nördlingen in 1634 – Sweden's only significant military defeat of the war – pro-Swedish sentiment among the German states faded.[59] These German provinces broke away from Swedish power one by one, leaving Sweden with only a few northern German territories:Swedish Pomerania,Bremen-Verden andWismar. From 1643 to 1645, during the last years of the war, Sweden andDenmark-Norway fought theTorstenson War. The result of that conflict and the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War helped establish postwar Sweden as a major force in Europe.[59] ThePeace of Westphalia in 1648 granted Sweden territories in northern Germany.
In the middle of the 17th century, Sweden was the third-largest country in Europe by land area. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent under the rule ofCharles X after thetreaty of Roskilde in 1658, following Charles X'scrossing of the Danish Belts.[60][61] The foundation of Sweden's success during this period is credited to Gustav I's major changes to theSwedish economy in the 16th century, and his introduction ofProtestantism.[62] One-third of the Finnish population died in the devastatingGreat Famine of 1695–1697 that struck the country.[63] Famine also hit Sweden, killing roughly 10% of Sweden's population.[64]
In the 17th century, Sweden was engaged in many wars, for example with Poland–Lithuania, with both sides competing for territories of today'sBaltic states. The Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629) ended with a ceasefire inStary Targ (Truce of Altmark) on 26 September 1629 that was in favour of the Swedes, to whom Poland ceded the larger part ofLivonia together with its important port ofRiga. The Swedes also gained the right to tax Poland’s Baltic trade (3.5% on the value of goods), and kept control of several cities inRoyal Prussia andDucal Prussia (includingPillau (Baltiysk),Memel (Klaipėda) andElbing (Elbląg)). The Swedes later conducted a series of invasions into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, known as theDeluge.[65] After more than half a century of almost constant warfare, the Swedish economy had deteriorated. It became the lifetime task of Charles X's son,Charles XI, to rebuild the economy and refit the army.[66] His legacy to his son, the coming ruler of Sweden,Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet.[67] Russia, the most serious threat to Sweden at this time, had a larger army but lagged far behind in both equipment and training.[68]
After theBattle of Narva in 1700, one of the first battles of theGreat Northern War, the Russian army was so severely devastated that Sweden had an open chance to invade Russia.[69] However, Charles XII did not pursue the Russian army, insteadturning against Poland and defeating the Polish king,Augustus II the Strong, and his Saxon allies at theBattle of Kliszów in 1702.[70] This gave Russia time to rebuild and modernise its army.
TheBattle of Poltava in 1709. In the following years, Russia and her allies occupied allSwedish dominions on the Baltic coast and even Finland.
After the success of invading Poland, Charles XII decided to make an attempt atinvading Russia, but this ended in a decisive Russian victory at theBattle of Poltava in 1709.[71] After a long march exposed toCossack raids, the Russian TsarPeter the Great'sscorched-earth techniques andthe extremely cold winter of 1709, the Swedes stood weakened with a shattered morale and were enormously outnumbered against the Russian army at Poltava.[72] The defeat meant the beginning of the end for the Swedish Empire. In addition,the plague raging in East Central Europe devastated theSwedish dominions and reached Central Sweden in 1710.[73][74] Returning to Sweden in 1715, Charles XII launchedtwo campaigns against Norway in 1716 and 1718, respectively. During the second attempt, he was shot to death during thesiege of Fredriksten fortress.[75] The Swedes were not militarily defeated at Fredriksten, but the whole structure and organisation of the campaign fell apart with the king's death. Forced to cede large areas of land in theTreaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden also lost its place as an empire and as the dominant state on the Baltic Sea.[76] With Sweden's lost influence, Russia emerged as an empire and became one ofEurope's dominant nations. As the war finally ended in 1721, Sweden had lost an estimated 200,000 men, 150,000 of those from the area of present-day Sweden and 50,000 from theFinnish part of Sweden.[77]Executive power was historically shared between the King and an aristocraticPrivy council until 1680, followed by the King'sautocratic rule initiated by the commoner estates of theRiksdag. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of constitutional monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809,the latter granting several civil liberties. Already during the first of those three periods, the 'Era of Liberty' (1719–72) the Swedish Riksdag had developed into a very active parliament, and this tradition continued into the nineteenth century, laying the basis for the transition towards modern democracy at the end of that century.[78]In the 18th century, Sweden did not have enough resources to maintain its territories outside Scandinavia, and most of them were lost, culminating withthe loss in 1809 of eastern Sweden to Russia, which became the highly autonomousGrand Principality of Finland inImperial Russia.[79]
In interest of re-establishing Swedish dominance in the Baltic Sea, Sweden allied itself against its traditional ally and benefactor, France, in theNapoleonic Wars. However, in 1810, a French Marshal,Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, was chosen as heir presumptive toCharles XIII; in 1818, he established theHouse of Bernadotte, taking theregnal name of Charles XIV. Sweden's role in theBattle of Leipzig gave it the authority to force Denmark–Norway, an ally of France, to cede Norway to the King of Sweden on 14 January 1814 in exchange for the northern German provinces, at theTreaty of Kiel.[80] The Norwegian attempts to keep their status as a sovereign state were rejected by the Swedish king,Charles XIII. He launched amilitary campaign against Norway on 27 July 1814, ending in theConvention of Moss, which forced Norway into apersonal union with Sweden under the Swedish crown, which lasted until 1905.[81][82] The 1814 campaign was the last time Sweden was at war.[83]
Starvation in northern Sweden depicted in an illustration of theFamine of 1867–1869Swedish emigrants boarding a ship inGothenburg in 1905
TheSwedish East India Company began in 1731. The obvious choice of home port wasGothenburg (Swedish:Göteborg) at Sweden's west coast, as the mouth ofGöta älv river was very wide and had the county's largest and best harbour for high-seas journeys. The trade continued into the 19th century, and caused the little town to become Sweden's second city.[84]Between 1750 and 1850, the population in Sweden doubled. According to some scholars, mass emigration to America became the only way to prevent famine and rebellion; over 1% of the population emigrated annually during the 1880s.[85] It is thought that between 1850 and 1910 more than one millionSwedes moved to the United States.[86] Nevertheless, Sweden remained poor, retaining a nearly entirely agricultural economy even as Western European countries began to industrialise.[85][87]
Despite the slow rate of industrialisation into the 19th century, many important changes were taking place in the agrarian economy due to constant innovations and a rapid population growth.[88] These innovations included government-sponsored programmes ofenclosure, aggressive exploitation of agricultural lands, and the introduction of new crops such as the potato.[88] The Swedish farming culture began to take on a critical role in Swedish politics, which has continued through modern times with modern Agrarian party (now called the Centre Party).[89] Between 1870 and 1914, Sweden began developing the industrialised economy that exists today.[90]
Strong grassroots movements sprang up in Sweden during the latter half of the 19th century (trade unions,temperance groups, and independent religious groups), creating a strong foundation of democratic principles. These movements precipitated Sweden's migration into a modern parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As theIndustrial Revolution progressed during the 20th century, people gradually moved into cities to work in factories and became involved in socialist unions. A communist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction ofparliamentarism, and the country wasdemocratised.
Sweden was officially neutral duringWorld War I. However, under pressure from theGerman Empire, they did take steps which were detrimental to theAllied powers – most notably, mining theÖresund channel, thus closing it to Allied shipping, and allowing the Germans to use Swedish facilities and the Swedishcipher to transmit secret messages to their overseas embassies.[91] Sweden also allowed volunteers to fight alongside the Germans for theWhite Guards against theRed Guards and Russians in theFinnish Civil War, and briefly occupiedÅland in cooperation with the German Empire.
As in the First World War, Sweden remained officially neutral duringWorld War II, although its neutrality has been disputed.[92][93] Sweden was under German influence for much of the war, as ties to the rest of the world were cut off through blockades.[92] The Swedish government unofficially supported Finland in theWinter War and theContinuation War by allowing volunteers andmateriel to be shipped to Finland. However, Sweden supported Norwegian resistance against Germany, and in 1943 helpedrescue Danish Jews from deportation toNazi concentration camps.
During the last year of the war, Sweden began to play a role in humanitarian efforts, and many refugees, among them several thousand Jews from Nazi-occupied Europe, were rescued thanks to theSwedish rescue missions to internment camps and partly because Sweden served as a haven for refugees.[94] The Swedish diplomatRaoul Wallenberg and his colleagues ensured the safety of tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews.[95] Nevertheless, both Swedes and others have argued that Sweden could have done more to oppose the Nazis' war efforts.[94]
Sweden was officially a neutral country and remained outsideNATO andWarsaw Pact membership during theCold War, but privately Sweden's leadership had strong ties with the United States and other western governments. Following the war, Sweden took advantage of an intact industrial base, social stability and its natural resources to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe.[96] Sweden received aid under theMarshall Plan and participated in the OECD. During most of the post-war era, the country was governed by theSwedish Social Democratic Party largely in co-operation withtrade unions and industry. The government actively pursued an internationally competitive manufacturing sector of primarily large corporations.[97]
Like many industrialised countries, Sweden entered a period of economic decline and upheaval following the oil embargoes of 1973–74 and 1978–79.[99] In the 1980s several key Swedish industries were significantly restructured. Shipbuilding was discontinued, wood pulp was integrated into modernised paper production, the steel industry was concentrated and specialised, and mechanical engineering was robotised.[100] Swedish GDP per capita ranking declined during this time.[97]
A bursting real estate bubble caused by inadequate controls on lending combined with an international recession and a policy switch from anti-unemployment policies to anti-inflationary policies resulted in afiscal crisis in the early 1990s.[101] Sweden's GDP declined by around 5%. In 1992, a run on the currency caused the central bank to briefly increase interest rates to 500%.[102][103]
Sweden joined the European Union in 1995, and signed theLisbon Treaty in 2007.
The response of the government was to cut spending and institute a multitude of reforms to improve Sweden's competitiveness, among them reducing thewelfare state andprivatising public services and goods.A referendum passed with 52.3% in favour of joining the EU on 13 November 1994. Sweden joined theEuropean Union on 1 January 1995. In a 2003 referendum the Swedish electoratevoted against joining theEuro currency. Sweden held the chair of the European Union from 1 July to 31 December 2009.
On 28 September 1994, theMS Estonia sank as the ship was crossing the Baltic Sea, en route from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden. The disaster claimed the lives of 852 people (501 of them were Swedes[104]), being one of the worst maritime disasters of the 20th century.[105]
Until 2022, Sweden generally remained non-aligned militarily, although it participated in some joint military exercises with theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and some other countries, stationed its troops under NATO command inAfghanistan, took part in EU-sponsoredpeacekeeping operations inKosovo,Bosnia and Herzegovina, andCyprus, andhelped enforce aUN-mandated no-fly zone over Libya during theArab Spring. In addition, there was extensive cooperation with other European countries in the area of defence technology and defence industry; some Swedish-made weaponry was used byCoalition militaries in Iraq.[106] In response to the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Sweden moved to formally join NATO, alongside Finland.[107] After many months of delays caused by the objections of Turkey and Hungary, Sweden became a NATO member on 7 March 2024.[108][109][110]
In recent decades Sweden has become a more culturally diverse nation due to significant immigration; in 2013, it was estimated that 15% of the population was foreign-born, and an additional 5% of the population were born to two immigrant parents. The influx of immigrants has brought new social challenges. Violent incidents haveperiodically occurred[111][112] including the2013 Stockholm riots.[113] In response to these violent events, theanti-immigration opposition party, theSweden Democrats, promoted their anti-immigration policies, while theleft-wing opposition blamed growing inequality caused by thecentre-right government's socioeconomic policies.[114]
Sweden was heavily affected by the2015 European migrant crisis, eventually forcing the government to tighten regulations of entry to the country.[115] Some of the asylum restrictions were relaxed again later.[116]
On 30 November 2021,Magdalena Andersson became Sweden's first female prime minister.[117][118] The September 2022 generalelection ended in a narrow win to a bloc of right-wing parties.[119] On 18 October 2022,Ulf Kristersson of the Moderate Party became the new Prime Minister.[120]
At 449,964 km2 (173,732 sq mi), Sweden is the 55th-largest country in the world,[121] thefifth-largest country in Europe, and the largest country in Northern Europe. The lowest elevation in Sweden is in the bay of Lake Hammarsjön, nearKristianstad, at −2.41 m (−7.91 ft) below sea level. The highest point isKebnekaise at 2,096.8 m (6,879 ft)above sea level.[122]
Sweden has 25provinces orlandskap. While these provinces serve no political or administrative purpose, they play an important role in people'sself-identity. The provinces are usually grouped together in three largelands, parts, the northern Norrland, the central Svealand and southern Götaland. The sparsely populated Norrland encompasses almost 60% of the country. Sweden also has theVindelfjällen Nature Reserve, one of the largest protected areas in Europe, totaling 562,772 ha (approx. 5,628 km2).
About 15% of Sweden lies north of theArctic Circle. Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, with increasing forest coverage northward. Around 65% of Sweden's total land area is covered with forests. The highest population density is in thevalley of lakeMälaren and Stockholm, theÖresund Region in southern Sweden and along thewestern coast up to central Bohuslän. Gotland andÖland are Sweden's largestislands;Vänern andVättern are its largest lakes. Vänern is the third largest in Europe, afterLake Ladoga andLake Onega in Russia. Combined with the third- and fourth-largest lakes Mälaren andHjälmaren, these lakes take up a significant part of southern Sweden's area. Sweden's extensive waterway availability throughout the south was exploited with the building of theGöta Canal in the 19th century, shortening the potential distance between the Baltic Sea south ofNorrköping andGothenburg by using the lake and river network to facilitate the canal.[123]
Sweden also hasplenty of long rivers draining the lakes. Northern and central Sweden have several wide rivers known asälvar, commonly sourced within the Scandinavian Mountains. The longest river isKlarälven-Göta älv, which originates inTrøndelag in central Norway, running 1,160 kilometres (720 mi) before it enters the sea atGothenburg. In southern Sweden, narrower rivers known asåar are also common. The vast majority of municipal seats are situated either along the sea, a river, or a lake, and most of the country's population resides in coastal municipalities.
Most of Sweden has atemperate climate, despite its northernlatitude, with largely four distinct seasons and mild temperatures throughout the year. The winter in the far south is usually weak and is manifested only through some shorter periods with snow and sub-zero temperatures; autumn may well turn into spring there, without a distinct period of winter. The northern parts of the country have asubarctic climate while the central parts have ahumid continental climate. The coastal south can be defined as having either ahumid continental climate using the 0 °C isotherm, or anoceanic climate using the -3 °C isotherm.
Due to the increased maritime moderation in the peninsular south, summer differences between the coastlines of the southernmost and northernmost regions are about 2 °C (4 °F) in summer and 10 °C (18 °F) in winter. This grows further when comparing areas in the northern interior where the winter difference in the far north is about 15 °C (27 °F) throughout the country. The warmest summers usually happen in theMälaren Valley aroundStockholm[124] due to the vast landmass shielding the middle east coast from Atlantic low-pressure systems in July. Daytime highs in Sweden's municipal seats vary from 19 °C (66 °F) to 24 °C (75 °F) in July and −9 °C (16 °F) to 3 °C (37 °F) in January. The colder temperatures are influenced by the higher elevation in the northern interior. At sea level, the coldest average highs range from 21 °C (70 °F) to −6 °C (21 °F). As a result of the mild summers, the arctic region ofNorrbotten has some of the northernmostagriculture in the world.[125]
Sweden is much warmer and drier than other places at a similar latitude, and even somewhat farther south, mainly because of the combination of theGulf Stream[126][127] and the general west wind drift, caused by the direction of Earth's rotation.[128] Because of Sweden's high latitude, the length of daylight varies greatly. North of the Arctic Circle, thesun never sets for part of each summer, andit never rises for part of each winter. In the capital,Stockholm, daylight lasts for more than 18 hours in late June but only around 6 hours in late December. Sweden receives between 1,100 and 1,900 hours of sunshine annually.[129]
The highest temperature ever recorded in Sweden was 38 °C (100 °F) inMålilla in 1947,[130] while the coldest temperature ever recorded was −52.6 °C (−62.7 °F) inVuoggatjålme on 2 February 1966.[131]
On average, most of Sweden receives between 500 and 800 mm (20 and 31 in) of precipitation each year, making it considerably drier than theglobal average. The south-western part of the country receives more precipitation, between 1,000 and 1,200 mm (39 and 47 in), and some mountain areas in the north are estimated to receive up to 2,000 mm (79 in). Despite northerly locations, southern and central Sweden may have almost no snow in some winters. Most of Sweden is located in therain shadow of the Scandinavian Mountains through Norway and north-west Sweden. It is predicted that as theBarents Sea gets less frozen in the coming winters, becoming thus "Atlantified", additional evaporation will increase future snowfalls in Sweden and much of continental Europe.[132]
Sweden has a considerable south to north distance which causes large climatic difference, especially during the winter. The related matter of the length and strength of the four seasons plays a role in which plants thatnaturally can grow at various places. Sweden is divided into five major vegetation zones. These are:
Southern deciduous forest zone, also known as the nemoral region, the southern deciduous forest zone is a part of a larger vegetation zone which also includes Denmark and large parts of Central Europe. It has to a rather large degree become agricultural areas, but larger and smaller forests still exist. The region is characterised by a large wealth of trees and shrubs. Thebeech is the most dominant tree, butoak can also form smaller forests.Elm at one time formed forests, but have been heavily reduced due toDutch Elm disease. Other important trees and shrubs in this zone includehornbeam,elder,hazel,fly honeysuckle,linden (lime),spindle,yew,alder buckthorn,blackthorn,aspen,European rowan,Swedish whitebeam,juniper,European holly,ivy,dogwood,goat willow,larch,bird cherry,wild cherry,maple,ash,alder along creeks, and in sandy soilbirch compete withpine.[133]Spruce is not native but between approximately 1870 and 1980, large areas were planted with it.[134] During the last 40–50 years large areas of former spruce plantings have been replanted with deciduous forest.[135]
Southern coniferous forest zone, also known as the boreo-nemoral region, is delimited by theoak's northern natural limit (limes norrlandicus) and theSpruce's southern natural limit,[136] between the southern deciduous zone and theTaiga farther north. In the southern parts of this zone the coniferous species are found, mainlyspruce andpine, mixed with various deciduous trees.Birch grows largely everywhere. Thebeech's northern boundary crosses this zone. Although in its natural area, alsoplanted Spruce are common, and such woods are very dense, as the spruces can grow very tight, especially in this vegetation zone's southern areas.
The northern coniferous forest zone or theTaiga begins north of the natural boundary of theoak. Of deciduous species thebirch is the only one of significance.Pine andspruce are dominant, but the forests are slowly but surely more sparsely grown the farther towards the north it gets. In the extreme north is it difficult to state the trees forms true forests at all, due to the large distances between the trees.[137]
The alpine-birch zone, in the Scandinavian mountains, depending on both latitude and altitude, is an area where only a smaller kind ofbirch (Betula pubescens orB.tortuosa) can grow. Where this vegetation zone ends, no trees grow at all: the bare mountain zone.[138]
Sweden had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 103rd globally out of 172 countries.[139] Sweden was ranked sixth in theEnvironmental Performance Index in 2024. The index combines various indicators around known issues around the world, and measures how good they fit in among each countries on a scale. Sweden scores good in parameters like air pollution, air quality, waste management, sanitation and drinking water etc.[140]
Sweden has a history of strong political involvement by ordinary people through its "popular movements" (Folkrörelser), the most notable being trade unions, the independent Christian movement, the temperance movement, thewomen's movement, and theintellectual property pirate movements. Sweden was the first country in the world to outlawcorporal punishment of children by their parents (parents' right to spank their own children was first removed in 1966, and it was explicitly prohibited by law from July 1979[141]).
Sweden is currently leading the EU in statistics measuringequality in the political system and equality in the education system.[142] TheGlobal Gender Gap Report 2006 ranked Sweden as the number one country in terms ofgender equality.[143]
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Sweden performs in the high range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in elected government and effective parliament.[144][145][146]
The public sector in Sweden is divided into two parts: thelegal person known as the State (Swedish:staten)[i] and local authorities:[j] the latter includeRegional Councils (Swedish:regioner) (renamed from county councils (landsting) in 2020[150][151]) and localMunicipalities (Swedish:kommuner).[152][153][154][155] The local authorities, rather than the State, make up the larger part of the public sector in Sweden.[156] Regional Councils and Municipalities are independent of one another, the former merely covers a larger geographical area than the latter.[156][157] The local authorities have self-rule, as mandated by the Constitution, and their own tax base.[153][158] Notwithstanding their self-rule, local authorities are nevertheless in practice dependent upon the State, as the parameters of their responsibilities and the extent of their jurisdiction are specified in the Local Government Act (Swedish:Kommunallagen) passed by theRiksdag.[153][159]
Sweden is aconstitutional monarchy, andKingCarl XVI Gustaf is thehead of state, but the role of the monarch is limited to ceremonial and representative functions.[160] Under the provisions of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the King lacks any formal political power.[161][162] The King opens the annual Riksdag session, chairs the Special Council held during a change of Government, holds regular Information Councils with the Prime Minister and the Government, chairs the meetings of theAdvisory Council on Foreign Affairs (Swedish:Utrikesnämnden), and receivesLetters of Credence of foreign ambassadors to Sweden and signs those of Swedish ambassadors sent abroad.[163][164] In addition, the King paysState Visits abroad and hosts those incoming.[163]
Legislative power is vested in theunicameral Riksdag with 349 members.General elections are held every four years. Legislation may be initiated by the Government or by members of the Riksdag. Members are elected on the basis ofproportional representation to a four-year term. The internal workings of the Riksdag are, in addition to the Instrument of Government, regulated by the Riksdag Act (Swedish:Riksdagsordningen).[165] The fundamental laws can be altered by the Riksdag alone; only an absolute majority with two separate votes, separated by a general election in between, is required.[148]
Most of the State administrative authorities (Swedish:statliga förvaltningsmyndigheter) report to the Government. A unique feature of Swedish State administration is that individual cabinet ministersdo not bear anyindividual ministerial responsibility for the performance of the agencies within their portfolio; as thedirector-generals and other heads of government agencies reports directly to the Government as a whole; and individual ministers are prohibited to interfere; thus the origin of the pejorative in Swedish political parlance termministerstyre (English: "ministerial rule") in matters that are to be handled by the individual agencies, unless otherwise specifically provided for in law.
TheJudiciary is independent from the Riksdag, Government and other State administrative authorities.[168] The role ofjudicial review of legislation is not practised by the courts; instead, theCouncil on Legislation gives non-binding opinions on legality.[169] There is nostare decisis in that courts are not bound byprecedent, although it is influential.[170]
Election turnout in Sweden has always been high by international comparison. Although it declined in recent decades, the latest elections saw an increase in voter turnout (80.11% in2002, 81.99% in 2006, 84.63% in 2010, 85.81 in2014)[171] and 87.18% in2018.[172] Swedish politicians enjoyed a high degree of confidence from the citizens in the 1960s, However, that level of confidence has since declined steadily, and is now at a markedly lower level than in its Scandinavian neighbours.[173]
Sweden is aunitary state divided into 21 regions (regioner) and 290 municipalities (kommuner). Every region corresponds to acounty (län) with a number of municipalities per county. Regions and municipalities are both local governments but have different roles and separate responsibilities. Health care, public transport and certain cultural institutions are administered by regional councils. Preschools, primary and secondary schooling, public water utilities, garbage disposal, elderly care and rescue services are administered by the municipalities.Gotland is a special case of being a region with only one municipality and the functions of region and municipality are performed by the same organisation.[174]
Municipal and region government in Sweden is similar tocity commission andcabinet-style council government. Both levels have legislative assemblies (municipal councils and region assemblies of between 31 and 101 members (always an uneven number) that are elected fromparty-list proportional representation at the general election which are held every four years in conjunction with the national parliamentary elections.
Municipalities are also divided into a total of 2,512parishes (församlingar). These have no official political responsibilities but are traditional subdivisions of theChurch of Sweden and still have some importance as census districts.
The Swedish central government has 21County Administrative Boards (Swedish:länsstyrelser), which are responsible for regional state administration not assigned to other government agencies or local government. Each county administrative board is led by aCounty Governor (Swedish:landshövding) appointed for a term of six years. The list of previous officeholders for the counties stretches back, in most cases, to 1634 when the counties were created byLord High Chancellor CountAxel Oxenstierna. The main responsibility of the County Administrative Board is to co-ordinate the development of the county in line with goals set by the Riksdag and Government.
There are older historical divisions, primarily the twenty-fiveprovinces and threelands, which still retain cultural significance.
The courts are divided into two parallel and separate systems: The general courts (allmänna domstolar) for criminal and civil cases, and general administrative courts (allmänna förvaltningsdomstolar) for cases relating to disputes between private persons and the authorities.[175] Each of these systems has three tiers, where the top tier court of the respective system typically only will hear cases that may becomeprecedent. There are also several special courts, each of which hears a narrower range of cases as defined by legislation. Although these courts rule independently, some operate as specialised divisions within the general or general administrative courts.
TheSupreme Court of Sweden (Swedish:Högsta domstolen) is the third and final instance in all civil and criminal cases in Sweden. The Supreme Court consists of 16 Justices (Swedish:justitieråd), appointed by the Government, but the court as an institution is independent of the Riksdag, and the Government is not able to interfere with the decisions of the court.
According to a victimisation survey of 1,201 residents in 2005, Sweden has above-averagecrime rates compared to other EU countries. Sweden has high or above-average levels of assaults, sexual assaults, hate crimes, and consumer fraud. Sweden has low levels of burglary, car theft and drug problems. Bribe seeking is rare.[176] A mid-November 2013 news report announced that four prisons in Sweden were closed during the year due to a significant drop in the number of inmates, with prison numbers in Sweden falling by around 1% a year since 2004.[177]
Prime Minister Ulf Kristersson with U.S. PresidentJoe Biden at theWhite House, 2023
Throughout the 20th century,Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in peacetime andneutrality in wartime. Sweden's government pursued an independent course of nonalignment in times of peace so that neutrality would be possible in the event of war.[96]
During the early Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment and a low profile in international affairs with asecurity policy based on strongnational defence.[178] The function of the Swedish military was to deter attack.[179] Beginning in the late 1960s, Sweden attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. It involved itself significantly in international peace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support of theThird World. Following the1986 assassination of Olof Palme and with the end of the Cold War, Sweden has adopted a more traditional foreign policy approach. Nevertheless, the country remains active in peacekeeping missions and maintains a considerable foreign aid budget.
Since 1995 Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in European security co-operation. In 2022, in response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Sweden moved to formally join the NATO alliance.[107] Sweden formally became a member of NATO in 2024.[110]
TheFörsvarsmakten (Swedish Armed Forces) are a government agency reporting to the SwedishMinistry of Defence and responsible for thepeacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy peacekeeping forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defence of Sweden in the event of war. The armed forces are divided intoArmy,Air Force andNavy. The head of the armed forces is theSupreme Commander (Överbefälhavaren, ÖB), the most senior commissioned officer in the country. Up to 1974, the King waspro formaCommander-in-Chief, but in reality it was clearly understood through the 20th century that the monarch would have noactive role as a military leader.
The Infantry fighting vehicleCV90, which is produced and used by Sweden
Until the end of the Cold War, nearly all males reaching the age ofmilitary service wereconscripted. In recent years, the number of male conscripts has declined markedly, whilst the number of female volunteers has seen a modest rise. Recruitment has increasingly focused on attracting the most committed candidates. Under current legislation, all personnel deployed abroad are required to be volunteers. As of 1 July 2010, Sweden discontinued regular conscription, moving to an all-volunteer military, except where compulsory service may be reinstated for national defence purposes.[180][181][182] The total forces gathered would consist of about 60,000 personnel. This in comparison with the 1980s, before the fall of the Soviet Union, when Sweden could gather up to 1,000,000 service members.
However, on 11 December 2014, due to tensions in the Baltic area, theSwedish Government reintroduced one part of theSwedish conscription system,refresher training.[183] On 2 March 2017, the government decided to reintroduce the remaining part of the Swedish conscription system, basic military training. The first recruits began their training in 2018. As the law is now gender neutral, both men and women may have to serve.[184]
Sweden decided not to sign the UN treaty on theProhibition of Nuclear Weapons.[185] Swedish units have taken part in peacekeeping operations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Liberia, Lebanon, Afghanistan and Chad.[186]
Sweden is the twelfth-richest country in the world in terms of GDP (gross domestic product) per capita and a highstandard of living is experienced by its citizens. Sweden is an export-orientedmixed economy. Timber,hydropower and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy with a heavy emphasis onforeign trade. Sweden's engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports, while telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are also of great importance. Sweden is the ninth-largestarms exporter in the world.Agriculture accounts for 2% of GDP and employment. The country ranks among the highest for telephone and Internet access penetration.[187]
Trade unions, employers' associations and collective agreements cover a large share of the employees in Sweden.[188][189] The high coverage of collective agreements is achieved despite the absence of state mechanisms extending collective agreements to whole industries or sectors. Both the prominent role of collective bargaining and the way in which the high rate of coverage is achieved reflect the dominance of self-regulation (regulation by the labour market parties themselves).[190] When the SwedishGhent system was changed in 2007, resulting in considerably raised fees to unemployment funds, a substantial decline in union density and density of unemployment funds occurred.[191][192]
In 2010, Sweden's incomeGini coefficient was the third lowest among developed countries, at 0.25—slightly higher than Japan and Denmark—suggestingSweden had low income inequality. However, Sweden's wealth Gini coefficient at 0.853 was the second highest in developed countries, and above European and North American averages, suggesting high wealth inequality.[193][194] Even on a disposable income basis, the geographical distribution of Gini coefficient of income inequality varies within different regions and municipalities of Sweden.Danderyd, outside Stockholm, has Sweden's highest Gini coefficient of income inequality, at 0.55, whileHofors near Gävle has the lowest at 0.25. In and around Stockholm and Scania, two of the more densely populated regions of Sweden, the income Gini coefficient is between 0.35 and 0.55.[195]
In terms of structure, the Swedish economy is characterised by a large, knowledge-intensive and export-oriented manufacturing sector; an increasing, but comparatively small, businessservice sector; and by international standards, a large public service sector. Large organisations, both in manufacturing and services, dominate the Swedish economy.[196] High and medium-high technology manufacturing accounts for 9.9% of GDP.[197]
An estimated 4.5 million Swedish residents are employed, and around a half of the workforce completed tertiary education.[199] In terms of GDP per-hour-worked, Sweden was the world's ninth highest in 2006 at US$31, compared to US$22 in Spain and US$35 in the United States.[200] GDP per-hour-worked is growing 2.5% per year for the economy as a whole and the trade-terms-balanced productivity growth is 2%.[200] According to the OECD, deregulation, globalisation, and technology sector growth have been key productivity drivers.[200] Sweden is a world leader in privatised pensions and pension funding problems are relatively small compared to many other Western European countries.[201] A pilot program to test the feasibility of a six-hour workday, without loss of pay, will commence in 2014, involving the participation of Gothenburg municipal staff. The Swedish government is seeking to reduce its costs through decreased sick leave hours and increased efficiency.[202]
Spotify, Swedish audio streaming service with more than 600 million users
The typical worker receives 40% of their labour costs after thetax wedge. Total tax collected by Sweden as a percentage of its GDP peaked at 52.3% in 1990.[203] The country faced a real estate and banking crisis in 1990–1991, and consequently passed tax reforms in 1991 to implement tax rate cuts and tax base broadening over time.[204][205] Since 1990, taxes as a percentage of GDP collected by Sweden have been dropping, with total tax rates for the highest income earners dropping the most.[206] In 2010 45.8% of the country's GDP was collected as taxes, the second highest among OECD countries, and nearly double the percentage in the US or South Korea.[203] Tax income-financed employment represents a third of the Swedish workforce, a substantially higher proportion than in most other countries. Overall, GDP growth has been fast since reforms—especially those in manufacturing—were enacted in the early 1990s.[207]
Sweden is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to theWorld Economic Forum in itsGlobal Competitiveness Report 2012–2013.[18] Sweden is the top performing country in the 2014Global Green Economy Index (GGEI).[208] Sweden is ranked sixth in the IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2024.[209]
Sweden maintains its own currency, theSwedish krona (SEK). The SwedishRiksbank—founded in 1668 and thus the oldest central bank in the world—is currently focusing on price stability with an inflation target of 2%. According to theEconomic Survey of Sweden 2007 by the OECD, the average inflation in Sweden has been one of the lowest among European countries since the mid-1990s, largely because of deregulation and quick utilisation of globalisation.[200]
The principal trading partners are Germany, the United States, Norway, the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Finland.
Sweden's energy market is largely privatised. TheNordic energy market is one of the first liberalised energy markets in Europe and it is traded inNASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe andNord Pool Spot. In 2006, out of a total electricity production of 139TWh, electricity from hydropower accounted for 61 TWh (44%), andnuclear power delivered 65 TWh (47%). At the same time, the use ofbiofuels,peat etc. produced 13 TWh (9%) of electricity, while wind power produced 1 TWh (1%). Sweden was a net importer of electricity by a margin of 6 TWh.[210]Biomass is mainly used to produce heat fordistrict heating andcentral heating and industry processes.
Sweden joined theInternational Energy Agency in 1974, after the1973 oil crisis strengthened Sweden's commitment to decrease dependence on imported fossil fuels.[211] To protect against unexpected oil supply shocks and in accordance with international commitments made through the IEA, Sweden maintains a strategic petroleum reserve of at least 90 days of net oil imports. As of February 2022, Sweden'soil reserves totalled 130 days' worth of net imports.[212] Sweden has moved to generate electricity mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. The use of nuclear power has been limited, however. Among other things, the accident ofThree Mile Island prompted the Riksdag to ban new nuclear plants. In March 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or increasing nuclear power.[213]
Sweden is considered a "global leader" indecarbonisation.[211] Politicians have made announcements about oil phase-out in Sweden, decrease of nuclear power, and multibillion-dollar investments inrenewable energy and energy efficiency.[214][215] The country has for many years pursued a strategy of indirect taxation as an instrument ofenvironmental policy, includingenergy taxes in general andcarbon dioxide taxes in particular.[214] Sweden was the first nation to implementcarbon pricing, and its carbon prices remain the highest in the world as of 2020. This model has been shown to be particularly effective at decarbonizing the nation's economy.[211]
Sweden has 162,707 km (101,101 mi) of paved road and 1,428 km (887 mi) of expressways.Motorways run through Sweden and over the Öresund Bridge to Denmark. Sweden had left-hand traffic (vänstertrafik in Swedish) from approximately 1736, but after the Riksdag passed legislation in 1963 changeover took place on 3 September 1967, known in Swedish asDagen H.
TheStockholm metro is the only underground system in Sweden and serves the city of Stockholm via 100 stations. The rail transport market is privatised, but while there are many privately owned enterprises, the largest operators are still owned by the state. Operators includeSJ,Veolia Transport,Green Cargo,Tågkompaniet andInlandsbanan. Most of the railways are owned and operated byTrafikverket.
Sweden also has a number of car ferry connections to several neighbouring countries.[216] This includes a route fromUmeå acrossthe Gulf of Bothnia toVaasa in Finland. There are several connections from the Stockholm area across theSea of Åland toMariehamn inÅland as well asTurku andHelsinki on the Finnish mainland and beyond to Estonia andSt Petersburg in Russia. Ferry routes from the Stockholm area also connect with Latvia and Poland across the Baltic Sea. The ferry ports ofKarlskrona andKarlshamn in southeastern Sweden serve Poland and Lithuania. Ystad and Trelleborg near the southern tip of Sweden have ferry links with the Danish island ofBornholm and the German ports ofSassnitz,Rostock andTravemünde, respectively, and ferries run toŚwinoujście, Poland, from both of them. Trelleborg is the busiest ferry port in Sweden in terms of weight transported by lorry.[217] Despite the opening of the fixed link to Denmark, theÖresund Bridge, the busiest ferry route remains the short link across the narrowest section of theÖresund betweenHelsingborg and the Danish port ofHelsingør, known as theHH Ferry route. There are over seventy departures a day each way; during peak times, a ferry departs every fifteen minutes.[218] Ports higher up the Swedish west coast includeVarberg, with a ferry connection across theKattegat toGrenaa in Denmark, and Gothenburg, servingFrederikshavn at the northern tip of Denmark andKiel in Germany. Finally, there are ferries fromStrömstad near the Norwegian border to destinations around theOslofjord in Norway.
Sweden operates two domestic ferry routes using large vessels, both of which connect Gotland with the mainland. The lines leave from Visby harbour on the island, and the ferries sail to eitherOskarshamn or Nynäshamn.[219] A smaller car ferry connects the island ofVen in Öresund withLandskrona.[220]
Sweden has one of the most highly developed welfare states in the world. According to a 2012 OECD report, the country had the second-highest public social spending as a percentage of its GDP after France, and the third-highest total (public and private) social spending at 30.2% of its GDP, after France and Belgium.[221] Sweden spent 6.3% of its GDP, the ninth-highest among 34 OECD countries, to provide equal access to education.[222] On health care, the country spent 10.0% of its total GDP, the 12th highest.[223]
Historically, Sweden provided solid support forfree trade (except agriculture) and mostly relatively strong and stable property rights (both private and public), though some economists have pointed out that Sweden promoted industries with tariffs and used publicly subsidised R&D during the country's early critical years of industrialisation.[224] After World War II a succession of governments expanded the welfare state by raising the taxes. A series of successive social reforms transformed the country into one of the most equal and developed on earth. The consistent growth of the welfare state led to Swedes achieving unprecedented levels of social mobility and quality of life—to this day Sweden consistently ranks at the top of league tables for health, literacy and Human Development—far ahead of some wealthier countries (for example the United States).[225] A report from theUnited Nations Development Program predicted that Sweden's rating on theHuman Development Index will fall from 0.949 in 2010 to 0.906 in 2030.[226]
Sweden has been relatively quick to adoptneoliberal policies, such asprivatisation,financialisation andderegulation,[227][228] compared to countries such as France.[200][229] The current Swedish government is continuing the trend of moderate rollbacks of previous social reforms.[200][230] Growth has been higher than in many otherEU-15 countries. Since the mid-1980s, Sweden has had the fastest growth in inequality of any developed nation, according to the OECD. This has largely been attributed to the reduction in state benefits and a shift toward the privatisation of public services. Nevertheless, it remains far more egalitarian than most nations.[114][231]
Sweden adopted free market agricultural policies in 1990. Since the 1930s, the agricultural sector had been subject to price controls. In June 1990, the Riksdag voted for a new agricultural policy marking a significant shift away from price controls. As a result,food prices fell somewhat. However, the liberalisations soon became moot because EU agricultural controls supervened.[232]
In 2015 and 2016, 69 per cent of the employed workers is organised in trade unions. Union density in 2016 was 62% among blue-collar-workers (most of them in theSwedish Trade Union Confederation, LO) and 75% among white-collar workers (most of them in the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees, TCO, and theSwedish Confederation of Professional Associations, SACO).[233] Sweden has state-supported union unemployment funds (Ghent system).[234] Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Sweden has a relatively high amount of sick leave per worker in OECD: the average worker loses 24 days due to sickness.[207]
The unemployment rate was 7.2% in May 2017 while the employment rate was 67.4%, with the workforce consisting of 4,983,000 people while 387,000 are unemployed.[235][236] Unemployment among youth (aged 24 or younger) in 2012 was 24.2%, making Sweden the OECD country with the highest ratio of youth unemployment versus unemployment in general.[237]
The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground.Tetra Pak was an invention for storing liquid foods, invented byErik Wallenberg.Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed byAstraZeneca. More recentlyHåkan Lans invented theAutomatic Identification System, a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions.[238]
Combined, the public and the private sector in Sweden allocate over 3.5% of GDP toresearch & development (R&D) per year, making Sweden's investment in R&D as a percentage of GDP the second-highest in the world.[240] For several decades theSwedish government has prioritised scientific and R&D activities. As a percentage of GDP, the Swedish government spends the most of any nation on research and development.[241] Sweden tops other European countries in the number of published scientific works per capita.[242]
TheEuropean Spallation Source (ESS) was scheduled to begin initial operations in 2019 with construction completion scheduled for 2025. The ESS will give an approximately 30 times stronger neutron beam than any of today's existing neutron source installations.[243] TheMAX IV, costing some SEK 3 billion, was inaugurated on 21 June 2016. Both facilities have strong implications on material research. Sweden was ranked second in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2023, 2024 and 2025.[244][245][246][247][248]
Waste management
Sweden is known for its efficient waste management system. Only 0.7% of the total household waste is disposed, and the rest is reused.[249] Around 52% of its waste is used for energy production (that is burnt) and 47% recycled.[250][251] About two million tonnes of waste are imported from neighbouring countries to make profitable recycling products.[249] As of 2023 report, Sweden generated 1.7 billion euros in 2020 (the highest so far was 1.98 billion euros in 2016) from recycling waste.[252] The works are mostly executed through the public organisation,Swedish Waste Management (Avfall Sverige).[249]
Since the late 1960s, Sweden has had the highest tax quota (as percentage of GDP) in the industrialised world, although today the gap has narrowed and Denmark has surpassed Sweden as the most heavily taxed country among developed countries. Sweden has a two-stepprogressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20–25% when a salary exceeds roughly 320,000 SEK per year.Payroll taxes amount to 32%. In addition, a nationalVAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens. Certain items are subject to additional taxes, e.g. electricity, petrol/diesel and alcoholic beverages. In 2007[update], total tax revenue was 47.8% of GDP, the second-highest tax burden among developed countries, down from 49.1% 2006.[253] Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP. State and municipal employees total around a third of the workforce, much more than in most Western countries. Only Denmark has a larger public sector (38% of Danish workforce). Spending on transfers is also high. On average, 27% of taxpayers' money in Sweden goes to education and healthcare, whereas 5% goes to the police and military, and 42% to social security.[254]
Every Swedish resident receives a state pension. Swedish Pensions Agency is responsible for pensions. People who have worked in Sweden, but relocated to another country, can also receive the Swedish pension. There are several types of pensions in Sweden: occupational and private pensions, and national retirement. A person can receive a combination of the various types of pensions.
Population density in the counties of Sweden. People/km2:
0–9.9
10–24.9
25–49.9
50–99.9
100–199.9
200+
The total resident population of Sweden was 10,588,020 in January 2025.[255] The population exceeded 10 million for the first time on Friday 20 January 2017.[256][257]
The average population density is just over 25 people per km2 (65 per square mile), with 1 437 persons per km2 in localities (continuous settlement with at least 200 inhabitants).[258][259] 88% of the population live in urban areas, which cover 1.5% of the entire land area.[14][260] 63% of Swedes are in large urban areas.[260] It is substantially higher in the south than in the north. There are more than 2000 localities.[14] The capital city Stockholm has a municipal population of about 950,000 (with 1.5 million in the urban area and 2.3 million in the metropolitan area). The second- and third-largest cities areGothenburg andMalmö. Outside of major cities, areas with notably higher population density include the agricultural part of Östergötland, the western coast, the area around Lake Mälaren and the agricultural area around Uppsala.
Norrland, which covers approximately 60% of the Swedish territory, has a very low population density (below five people per square kilometre). The mountains and most of the remote coastal areas are almost unpopulated. Low population density exists also in large parts of western Svealand, as well as southern and central Småland. An area known asFinnveden, which is located in the south-west of Småland, and mainly below the 57th parallel, can also be considered as almost empty of people.
There are no official statistics on ethnicity, but according to Statistics Sweden, 2,752,572 (26%) inhabitants of Sweden were of aforeign background in 2021, defined as being born abroad or born in Sweden with both foreign-born parents.[261] Of these inhabitants, 2,090,503 persons were born abroad and 662,069 persons were born in Sweden to parents born abroad. In addition, 805,340 persons had one parent born abroad with the other parent born in Sweden.[261] Five minority groups are officially recognized by Sweden:Jews,Romani,Sámi,Sweden Finns, andTornedalians.[262]
Sweden has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 41.1 years.[263]
The official language of Sweden is Swedish,[1][2] a North Germanic language, related and very similar toDanish andNorwegian, but differing in pronunciation andorthography.Sweden Finns are Sweden's largest linguistic minority, comprising about 5% of Sweden's population,[264] and Finnish is recognised as a minority language.[2] Thedialects spoken in Scania, the southernmost part of the country, are influenced by Danish because the region was a part of Denmark until the treaty of Roskilde in 1658. Owing to a 21st-century influx of native speakers ofArabic, the use of Arabic is likely more widespread in the country than that of Finnish. However, no official statistics are kept on language use.[265]
Along with Finnish,four other minority languages are also recognised:Meänkieli,Sámi,Romani, andYiddish. Swedish became Sweden's official language on 1 July 2009, when a new language law was implemented.[2] The issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language had been raised in the past, and the Riksdag voted on the matter in 2005, but the proposal narrowly failed.[266]
To varying degrees, a majority of Swedes, especially those born after World War II, understand and speak English, owing to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition ofsubtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films, and therelative similarity of the two languages which makes learning English easier. In a 2023 survey byEurobarometer, 90% of the population reported the ability to speak English at a conversational level.[267]German is the second most widely spoken foreign language, with 25% reporting conversational proficiency, followed byFrench with 12%.[267]
English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studyingnatural sciences as early as 1849, and has been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s.[268] Most students also study one and sometimes two additional languages. Some Danish and Norwegian is also taught as part of Swedish courses for native speakers. Because of the extensivemutual intelligibility between the three continentalScandinavian languages, Swedish speakers often use their native language when visiting or living in Norway or Denmark.
Before the 11th century, Swedes adhered toNorse paganism, worshipingÆsir gods, with its centre at theTemple in Uppsala. WithChristianisation in the 11th century, the laws of the country changed, forbidding worship of other deities until the late 19th century. After theProtestant Reformation in the 1530s, the authority of theRoman Catholic Church was abolished andLutheranism became widespread. Adoption of Lutheranism was completed by theUppsala Synod of 1593, and it became the official religion. During the era following the Reformation, usually known as the period ofLutheran orthodoxy, small groups of non-Lutherans, especiallyCalvinist Dutch, theMoravian Church andFrench Huguenots played a significant role in trade and industry, and were quietly tolerated.[269] The Sami originally had their ownshamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.
With religious liberalisations in the late 18th century believers of other faiths, includingJudaism andRoman Catholicism, were allowed to live and work freely in the country. However, until 1860 it remained illegal for Lutherans to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of variousevangelicalfree churches, and, towards the end of the century,secularism, leading many to distance themselves from church rituals. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-calledDissenter Act of 1860, but only under the provision of entering anotherChristian denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was formally established in the law onfreedom of religion in 1951.
At the end of 2024, 51.4% of Swedes belonged to theChurch of Sweden;[271] this number has been decreasing by 1-2 percentage points each year since 2001.[272][273][274] Approximately 2% of the church's members regularly attend Sunday services.[275] The reason for the large number of inactive members is partly that, until 1996, children automatically became members at birth if at least one of the parents was a member. Since 1996, only children and adults who arechristened become members. Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of variousEvangelical Protestant free churches (where congregation attendance is much higher), and due to recent immigration, there are now some 100,000Eastern Orthodox Christians and 92,000 Roman Catholics living in Sweden.[276]
The first Muslim congregation was established in 1949. Islam's presence in Sweden remained marginal until the 1960s, when Sweden started to receive migrants fromthe Balkans and Turkey. Further immigration fromNorth Africa and theMiddle East have brought the estimatedMuslim population to 600,000.[278] However, only about 110,000 were members of a congregation around 2010.[279][280][281]
Healthcare in Sweden is mainlytax-funded, universal for all citizens, and decentralised,[282] although private health care also exists. The health care system in Sweden is financed primarily through taxes levied by regional councils and municipalities. A total of 21 councils are in charge of primary and hospital care within the country.
Private healthcare is uncommon in Sweden, and even private institutions operate under the supervision of local councils.[283] The city councils regulate the rules and the establishment of potential private practices. While care for the elderly or those who need psychiatric help is conducted privately in many other countries, in Sweden, publicly funded local authorities are in charge of this type of care.[284]
Healthcare in Sweden is similar in quality to other developed nations. Sweden ranks in the top five countries with respect to lowinfant mortality. It also ranks high inlife expectancy and in safedrinking water.[285] In 2018, health and medical care represented around 11% of GDP.[286]
Children aged 1–5 years old are guaranteed a place in a publickindergarten (Swedish:förskola or, colloquially,dagis). Between the ages of 6 and 16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. In theProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Swedish 15-year-old pupils score close to the OECD average.[287] After completing the ninth grade, about 90% of the students continue with a three-year upper secondary school (gymnasium), which can lead to both a job qualification or entrance eligibility to university. The school system is largely financed by taxes.
The Swedish government treats public and independent schools equally[288] by introducingeducation vouchers in 1992 as one of the first countries in the world after the Netherlands. Anyone can establish a for-profit school and the municipality must pay new schools the same amount as municipal schools get. School lunch is free for all students in Sweden, and providing breakfast is also encouraged.[289]
There are a number of differentuniversities and colleges in Sweden, the oldest and largest of which are situated inUppsala,Lund,Gothenburg andStockholm. In 2000, 32% of Swedish people held atertiary degree, making the country fifth in the OECD in that category.[290] Along with several other European countries, the government also subsidises tuition of international students pursuing a degree at Swedish institutions, although a recent bill passed in the Riksdag will limit this subsidy to students from EEA countries and Switzerland.[291]
The large influx of immigrants to Swedish schools has been cited as a significant part of the reason why Sweden has dropped more than any other European country in the internationalPISA rankings.[292][293][294][295]
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Sweden was seen as an international leader in what is now referred to as the "sexual revolution", with gender equality having particularly been promoted.[296][297] Sweden has also become very liberal towardshomosexuality, as is reflected in the popular acceptance of films such asShow Me Love. Since 1 May 2009, Sweden repealed its "registered partnership" laws and fully replaced them withgender-neutral marriage.[298] Sweden also offersdomestic partnerships for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. Cohabitation (sammanboende) by couples of all ages, including teenagers as well as older couples, is widespread.
Sweden also has a prominent choral music tradition. In 2003, it was estimated that five to six hundred thousand people sing in choirs.[299]
In 2007, with over 800 million dollars in revenue, Sweden was the third-largest music exporter in the world and surpassed only by the US and the UK.[300][301][better source needed] According to one source 2013, Sweden produces the most chart hits per capita in the world, followed by the UK and the US.[302]Sweden has a rather livelyjazz scene. The Centre for Swedish Folk Music and Jazz Research has published an overview of jazz in Sweden by Lars Westin.[303]
Before the 13th century, almost all buildings were made of timber, but a shift soon began towards stone. Early Swedish stone buildings are theRomanesque churches on the countryside. This would include theLund Cathedral from the 11th century and the somewhat younger church inDalby, but also many earlyGothic churches built through influences of the Hanseatic League, such as in Ystad, Malmö and Helsingborg.
Cathedrals in other parts of Sweden were also built as seats of Sweden's bishops. TheSkara Cathedral is made of bricks from the 14th century, and theUppsala Cathedral in the 15th century. In 1230, the foundations of theLinköping Cathedral were made, the material was therelimestone, but the building took some 250 years to finish.
TheStockholm exhibition, which marked the breakthrough ofFunctionalism, orfunkis as it became known first surfaced in 1930; the style came to dominate in the following decades. Some notable projects of this kind were theMillion Programme, offering affordable living in large apartment complexes.
TheAvicii Arena, located in Stockholm, is the largest hemispherical building on Earth. Its dome has a diameter of 110 metres (360 feet) and took two and a half years to build.[304]
Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and nearly every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers areDagens Nyheter (liberal),Göteborgs-Posten (liberal),Svenska Dagbladet (liberal conservative) andSydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest eveningtabloids areAftonbladet (social democratic) andExpressen (liberal). The ad-financed, free international morning paper,Metro International, was founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by, among others,The Local (liberal).[305]
The public broadcasting companies held a monopoly on radio and television for a long time in Sweden. Licence-funded radio broadcasts started in 1925. A second radio network was started in 1954, and a third opened 1962, in response topirate radio stations. Non-profitcommunity radio was allowed in 1979 and in 1993 commercial local radio started.
The licence-funded television service was officially launched in 1956. A second channel,TV2, was launched in 1969. These two channels (operated bySveriges Television since the late 1970s) held a monopoly until the 1980s when cable and satellite television became available. The first Swedish-language satellite service wasTV3 which started broadcasting from London in 1987. It was followed byKanal 5 in 1989 (then known as Nordic Channel) andTV4 in 1990. TV4 began its terrestrial broadcasts in 1992, becoming the first private channel to broadcast television content from within the country.
With improved education and the freedom brought bysecularisation, the 17th century saw several notable authors develop the Swedish language further. Some key figures includeGeorg Stiernhielm (17th century), who was the first to write classical poetry in Swedish;Johan Henric Kellgren (18th century), the first to write fluent Swedish prose; Carl Michael Bellman (late 18th century), the first writer ofburlesque ballads; and August Strindberg (late 19th century), a socio-realistic writer and playwright who won worldwide fame. The early 20th century continued to produce notable authors, such as Selma Lagerlöf, (Nobel laureate 1909),Verner von Heidenstam (Nobel laureate 1916) andPär Lagerkvist (Nobel laureate 1951).
In recent decades, a handful of Swedish writers have established themselves internationally, including the detective novelistHenning Mankell and the writer of spy fictionJan Guillou. The Swedish writer to have made the most lasting impression on world literature is the children's book writer Astrid Lindgren, and her books aboutPippi Longstocking,Emil, and others. In 2008, the second best-selling fiction author in the world wasStieg Larsson, whoseMillennium series of crime novels is being published posthumously to critical acclaim.[306]
Apart from traditional ProtestantChristian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They includeMidsummer celebrating the summersolstice;Walpurgis Night (Valborgsmässoafton) on 30 April lighting bonfires; and Labour Day or May Day on 1 May is dedicated to socialist demonstrations. The day of giver-of-lightSaint Lucia, 13 December, is widely acknowledged in elaborate celebrations which betoken its Italian origin and commence the month-long Christmas season.
6 June is theNational Day of Sweden and has since 2005 been a public holiday. Furthermore, there areofficial flag flying day observances and aNamesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes havekräftskivor (crayfish dinner parties).Martin of Tours Eve is celebrated inScania in November withMårten Gås parties, where roast goose andsvartsoppa ('black soup') are served. TheSámi, one of Sweden's indigenous minorities, have their holiday on 6 February and Scania celebrate their Scanian Flag day on the third Sunday in July.[307]
Swedish cuisine, like that of the otherNordic countries (Denmark,Norway andFinland), was traditionally simple. Fish (particularlyherring), meat, potatoes anddairy products played prominent roles. Spices were sparse. Preparations include Swedish meatballs, traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes andlingonberry jam;pancakes;pyttipanna, a spiced fried hash of meat and potatoes originally meant to use up any leftovers of meat;lutfisk; and thesmörgåsbord, or lavish buffet.Akvavit is a popular alcoholicdistilled beverage, and the drinking ofsnaps is of cultural importance. The traditional flat and drycrisp bread has developed into several contemporary variants. Regionally important foods are thesurströmming (a fermented fish) in northern Sweden andeel in southern Sweden.
In August, at the traditional feast known as crayfish party,kräftskiva, Swedes eat large amounts ofcrayfish boiled with dill.
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating in organised sporting activities. The two main spectator sports arefootball andice hockey. Second to football,horse sports (of which most of the participants are women) have the highest number of practitioners. Thereafter,golf,orienteering,gymnastics,track and field, and theteam sports ofice hockey,handball,floorball,basketball andbandy are the most popular in terms of practitioners.[308]TheSwedish national men's ice hockey team, affectionately known asTre Kronor (English:Three Crowns), has won theWorld Championships nine times, placing them third in the all-time medal count.Tre Kronor also won Olympic gold medals in1994 and2006. In 2006,Tre Kronor became the first national hockey team to win both the Olympic and world championships in the same year. TheSwedish national men's football team has seen some success at the World Cup in the past, finishing second when they hosted the tournament in 1958, and third twice, in1950 and1994.
^The State (Swedish:staten) is also descriptively translated into English as the "central government", not to be confused with theGovernment, i.e. the cabinet which is but one organ of the State.
^An alternate English translation is "local governments".
^Hellquist, Elof (1922).Svensk etymologisk ordbok [Swedish etymological dictionary] (in Swedish). Gleerup. p. 917.Archived from the original on 28 August 2011. Retrieved30 August 2011.
^Hadenius, Stig; Nilsson, Torbjörn; Åselius, Gunnar (1996).Sveriges historia: vad varje svensk bör veta [History of Sweden: what every Swede should know] (in Swedish). Bonnier Alba.ISBN978-91-34-51784-4.
^Peterson, Gary Dean (2014).Warrior Kings of Sweden: The Rise of an Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. McFarland.ISBN978-1-4766-0411-4.
^Bagge, Sverre (2005). "The Scandinavian Kingdoms". In McKitterick, Rosamond (ed.).The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge University Press. p. 724.ISBN978-0-521-36289-4.Swedish expansion in Finland led to conflicts with Rus', which were temporarily brought to an end by a peace treaty in 1323, dividing the Karelian peninsula and the northern areas between the two countries.
^Tarkiainen, Kari (2010).Ruotsin itämaa. Helsinki: Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland. pp. 104–147.ISBN978-951-583-212-2.
^Tarkiainen, Kari (2010).Ruotsin itämaa. Porvoo: Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland. pp. 167–170.ISBN978-951-583-212-2.
^"A Political and Social History of Modern Europe V.1./Hayes..." Hayes, Carlton J. H. (1882–1964),Title: A Political and Social History of Modern Europe V.1., 2002-12-08, Project Gutenberg, webpage:Infomot-7hsr110.Archived 17 November 2007 at theWayback Machine
^Engström, Nils Göran (1994). "Pesten i Finland 1710" [The plague in Finland in 1710].Hippokrates. Suomen Lääketieteen Historian Seuran Vuosikirja.11:38–46.PMID11640321.
^Ottosen, Morten Nordhagen (25 November 2015)."Mossekonvensjonen".Norges historie (in Norwegian).University of Oslo.Archived from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved9 December 2019.
^Tore Frängsmyr, "Ostindiska Kompaniet", Publisher- "Bokförlaget Bra Böcker",Höganäs, 1976. (No ISBN to be found), backside overview and
^abEinhorn, Eric; Logue, John (1989).Modern Welfare States: Politics and Policies in Social Democratic Scandinavia. Praeger Publishers. p. 9.ISBN978-0-275-93188-9.Though Denmark, where industrialization had begun in the 1850s, was reasonably prosperous by the end of the nineteenth century, both Sweden and Norway were terribly poor. Only the safety valve of mass emigration to America prevented famine and rebellion. At the peak of emigration in the 1880s, over 1% of the total population of both countries emigrated annually.
^Koblik, Steven (1975).Sweden's Development From Poverty to Affluence, 1750–1970. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 8–9.ISBN978-0-8166-0766-2.In economic and social terms the eighteenth century was more a transitional than a revolutionary period. Sweden was, in light of contemporary Western European standards, a relatively poor but stable country. ...It has been estimated that 75–80% of the population was involved in agricultural pursuits during the late eighteenth century. One hundred years later, the corresponding figure was still 72%.
^Koblik, p. 11: "The agrarian revolution in Sweden is of fundamental importance for Sweden's modern development. Throughout Swedish history the countryside has taken an unusually important role in comparison with other European states."
^Koblik, p. 90. "It is usually suggested that between 1870 and 1914 Sweden emerged from its primarily agrarian economic system into a modern industrial economy."
^Nordstrom, p. 315: "Sweden's government attempted to maintain at least a semblance of neutrality while it bent to the demands of the prevailing side in the struggle. Although effective in preserving the country's sovereignty, this approach generated criticism at home from many who believed the threat to Sweden was less serious than the government claimed, problems with the warring powers, ill feelings among its neighbours, and frequent criticism in the postwar period."
^Nordstrom, p. 344: "During the last 25 years of the century a host of problems plagued the economies of Norden and the West. Although many were present before, the 1973 and 1980 global oil crises acted as catalysts in bringing them to the fore."
^Lobell, Håkan; Schön, Lennart; Krantz, Olle (June 2008). "Swedish Historical National Accounts, 1800–2000: Principles and Implications of a New Generation".Scandinavian Economic History Review.56 (2). Almqvist and Wiksell International:142–159.doi:10.1080/03585520802191282.[page needed]
^Englund, P. 1990. "Financial deregulation in Sweden." European Economic Review 34 (2–3): 385–393. Korpi TBD. Meidner, R. 1997. "The Swedish model in an era of mass unemployment." Economic and Industrial Democracy 18 (1): 87–97. Olsen, Gregg M. 1999. "Half empty or half full? The Swedish welfare state in transition." Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology, 36 (2): 241–268.
^"Skog och bebyggelse" [Forest and Buildings] (in Swedish).Skåne Länsstyrelse. Archived fromthe original on 12 October 2017.Granskogen, som spreds norrifrån, nådde inte Skåne förrän mot slutet av 1800-talet. Under 1900-talets första hälft planterades stora arealer granskog. [The spruce forest, which spread from the north, did not reach Scania until the end of the 19th century. During the first half of the 20th century, large areas of spruce forest were planted.]
^About the 1984 "Ädellövskogslagen"[1]Archived 12 October 2017 at theWayback Machine – "I Sydsverige (Skåne, Halland och Blekinge) skall minst 70% av beståndet utgöras av ädellöv. Enligt ädellövskogslagen skall efter slutavverkning, alltid ny ädellövskog anläggas på sådana marker." or "In southern Sweden (Scania, Halland and Blekinge) at least 70% of the stock must be ofedible leaves. According to the 'edible deciduous forests law', after ever harvesting, new deciduous forests must always be planted on such fields." (in these three provinces)
^Nordstrom, p 336: "As a corollary, a security policy based on strong national defences designed to discourage, but not prevent, attack was pursued. For the next several decades, the Swedish poured an annual average of about 5% of GDP into making their defenses credible."
^John Bitton and Nils-Åke Svensson, "Øresund sett från himlen" (Oresund seen from the sky), 2005,ISBN978-91-85305-10-0, page 38
^At"Tidtabell".Archived from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved12 May 2015. please press "Tidtabell 2 jan – 31 maj 2015" (Time table 2. January to 31. May 2015) for PDF download
^"Ventrafiken -Upplev sundets pärla" [Ventrafiken – Experience the pearl of the strait].ventrafiken.se (in Swedish).Archived from the original on 1 May 2015. Retrieved12 May 2015.
^Yearly averages excluding full-time students working part-time. See Anders KjellbergKollektivavtalens täckningsgrad samt organisationsgraden hos arbetsgivarförbund och fackförbund [ The coverage rate of collective agreements and the unionization rate among employers' associations and trade unions]Archived 12 March 2017 at theWayback Machine, Department of Sociology, Lund University. Studies in Social Policy, Industrial Relations, Working Life and Mobility. Research Reports 2017:1, Appendix 3 (in English) Table A
^"Offentliga sektorns utgifter" [Public sector expenditures] (in Swedish). 22 August 2017.Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved21 April 2019.
^Svenska kyrkan (2024)."Svenska kyrkans medlemsutveckling år 1972-2024" [The Church of Sweden's membership development from 1972 to 2024](PDF) (in Swedish).Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved28 March 2025.
^"Statistik" [Statistics] (in Swedish). Swedish Commission for Government Support to Faith Communities. 2010. Archived fromthe original on 29 November 2012. Retrieved4 July 2012.
^"Invandring säker faktor bakom Pisa-tappet" [Immigration is a definite factor behind the PISA drop].Dagens Samhalle (in Swedish). 23 February 2016.Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved17 November 2017.
^Durant, Colin (2003).Choral Conducting: philosophy and practice. Routledge. pp. 46–47.ISBN978-0-415-94356-7.Sweden has a strong and enviable choral singing tradition. [..] All those interviewed placed great emphasis on the social identification through singing and also referred to the importance of Swedish folk song in the maintenance of the choral singing tradition and national identity.
^Lokala Nyheter Skåne (21 July 2019)."Så firas skånska flaggans dag | SVT Nyheter" [This is how Scanian Flag Day is celebrated].SVT Nyheter (in Swedish). Svt.se.Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved3 June 2020.
^"Idrottsrörelsen i siffror" [The sports movement in numbers](PDF).rf.se (in Swedish). Swedish Sports Confederation. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 9 August 2022. Retrieved16 July 2020.
Further reading
Bagge, Sverre (2005). "The Scandinavian Kingdoms". InThe New Cambridge Medieval History. Eds.Rosamond McKitterick et al. Cambridge University Press, 2005.ISBN978-0-521-36289-4.
Bradley, David (1990). "Radical principles and the legal institution of marriage: domestic relations law and social democracy in Sweden—BRADLEY 4 (2): 154—International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family".International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family.4 (2):154–185.doi:10.1093/lawfam/4.2.154.
Durant, Colin (2003).Choral Conducting: philosophy and practice, Routledge, pp. 46–47.ISBN978-0-415-94356-7.
Einhorn, Eric and John Logue (1989).Modern Welfare States: Politics and Policies in Social Democratic Scandinavia. Praeger Publishers, 1989.ISBN978-0-275-93188-9.
Frost, Robert I (2000).The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558–1721. Longman.ISBN978-0-582-06429-4.
Koblik, Steven (1975).Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence 1750–1970. University of Minnesota Press.ISBN978-0-8166-0757-0.
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