Surya (/ˈsuːriə/SOO-ree-ə;[8]Sanskrit:सूर्य,IAST:Sūrya) is the Sun[9] as well as thesolar deity inHinduism.[9] He is traditionally one of the major five deities in theSmarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in thePanchayatana puja and a means to realiseBrahman.[10] Throughout Indian literature, Surya has been given multiple epitaphs such asRavi,Vaivasvat,Bhāskara, etc. Furthermore, Surya has been described through aspects of itself which are identified as theĀdityas; includingSavitr,Pushan,Mārtanda,Bhaga, etc.[11][12][13]
The iconography of Surya is often depicted riding a chariot harnessed by horses, often seven in number[3] which represent the seven colours of visible light, and the seven days of the week.[11][14] During the medieval period, Surya was worshipped in tandem withBrahma during the day,Shiva at noon, andVishnu in the evening.[11][15] In some ancient texts and art, Surya is presented syncretically withIndra,Ganesha, and others.[11][14] Surya as a deity is also found in the arts and literature ofBuddhism andJainism. Surya is also regarded as the father ofSugriva andKarna, who play important roles in the two Hindu epics—theRamayana and theMahabharata, respectively. Surya was a primary deity in veneration by the characters of theMahabharata andRamayana.[16][17]
Having survived as a primary deity in Hinduism longer than most of the original Vedic deities, the worship of Surya declined greatly around the 13th century, perhaps as a result of the Muslim destruction of Sun temples in North India. New Sun temples virtually ceased to be built, and some were later repurposed to a different deity. A number of important Surya temples remain, but most are no longer in worship. In certain aspects, Surya has tended to be merged with the prominent deities ofVishnu orShiva, or seen as subsidiary to them.[22]
Texts and history
Vedic
The Sun and the Earth
The Sun causes day and night on the earth, because of revolution, when there is night here, it is day on the other side, the sun does not really rise or sink.
The oldest surviving Vedic hymns, such as the hymn 1.115 of theRigveda, mentionSūrya with particular reverence for the "rising sun" and its symbolism as dispeller of darkness, one who empowers knowledge, the good and all life.[25][26] However, the usage is context specific. In some hymns, the word Surya simply means Sun as an inanimate object, a stone or a gem in the sky (Rigvedic hymns 5.47, 6.51 and 7.63); while in others it refers to apersonified deity.[27][26]Surya is prominently associated with the dawn goddessUshas and sometimes, he is mentioned as her son or her husband.[28]
Surya's origin differs heavily in the Rigveda, with him being stated to have been born, risen, or established by a number of deities, including theĀdityas,Aditi,Dyaush,Mitra-Varuna,Agni,Indra,Soma, Indra-Soma, Indra-Varuna, Indra-Vishnu,Purusha,Dhatri, the Angirases, and thegods in general.[27][29] The Atharvaveda also mentions that Surya originated fromVritra.[27]
The Vedas assert Sun (Surya) to be the creator of the material universe (Prakriti).[30] In the layers ofVedic texts, Surya is one of the several trinities along withAgni and eitherVayu orIndra, which are presented as an equivalent icon and aspect of the Hindu metaphysical concept called theBrahman.[31]
In theBrahmanas layer of Vedic literature, Surya appears withAgni (fire god) in the same hymns.[32] Surya is revered for the day, while Agni for its role during the night.[32] The idea evolves, states Kapila Vatsyayan, where Surya is stated to be Agni as the first principle and the seed of the universe.[33] It is in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas,[34][35] and theUpanishads that Surya is explicitly linked to the power of sight, to visual perception and knowledge. He is then interiorized to be the eye as ancient Hindu sages suggested abandonment of external rituals to gods in favor of internal reflections and meditation of gods within, in one's journey to realize the Atman (soul, self) within, in texts such as theBrihadaranyaka Upanishad,Chandogya Upanishad,Kaushitaki Upanishad and others.[36][37][38]
Conflation with other solar deities
Surya in Indian literature is referred to by various names, which typically represent different aspects or phenomenological characteristics of the Sun. The figure of Surya as we know him today is an amalgamation of various different Rigvedic deities.[39] Thus,Savitr refers to one that rises and sets, Aditya means one with splendor,Mitra refers to Sun as "the great luminous friend of all mankind",[40] whilePushan refers to Sun as illuminator that helped theDevas win over Asuras who use darkness.[41] Arka, Mitra, Vivasvat, Aditya, Tapan, Ravi and Surya have different characteristics in early mythologies, but by the time of the epics they are synonymous.[41]
The term "Arka" is found more commonly in temple names of north India and in the eastern parts of India. The 11th centuryKonark Temple inOdisha is named after a composite word "Kona and Arka", or "Arka in the corner".[42]: 6–7 Other Surya temples named after Arka include Devarka (Deva teertha) and Ularka (Ulaar) in Bihar, Uttararka and Lolarka inUttar Pradesh, and Balarka inRajasthan. Another 10th-century sun temple ruin is inBahraich, Uttar Pradesh named Balarka Surya Mandir, which was destroyed in the 14th century during the Turkish invasions.[citation needed]
Vivasvat, also known as Vivasvant,[43] is also one such of these deities. His wife isSaranyu, daughter ofTvashtar. His sons include theAshvins,Yama, andManu. Through Manu, Vivasvat is considered an ancestor of humanity. Vivasvat is affiliated withAgni andMatarishvan, with Agni being stated to have been first revealed to those two. Vivasvat is also variously related toIndra,Soma, andVaruna. Vivasvant is also used as an adjective of Agni andUshas to mean "brilliant". Already by the time of his earliest appearance (the Rigveda), Vivasvat had declined in importance. He was likely a solar deity, but scholars debate his specific role as one.[44] In the Rigveda, Indra drinks Soma alongside Manu Vivasvat andTrita.[44] In post-Vedic literature, Vivasvat further declines in importance, and is merely another name for the sun.[44] He is cognate to theAvestan Vivanhvant, who is the father ofYima (cognate to Yama) and Manu.[44][45]Taittiriya Aranyaka, in Prapataka (section) 6, provides the methods of meditating on Surya.[46]
Epics
As per theRamayana's Yuddha Kanda,Rama was taught theĀdityahṛdayam stotra before his war againstRavana, the king of therakshasas. The stotra was composed in Anushtup Chanda in praise of Surya, who is described as the embodiment of all gods and the origin of everything in the universe.
The Mahabharata epic opens its chapter on Surya that reverentially calls him as the "eye of the universe, soul of all existence, origin of all life, goal of theSamkhyas andYogis, and symbolism for freedom and spiritual emancipation.[26]
In theMahabharata,Karna is the son of Surya and unmarried princessKunti.[26] The epic describes Kunti's trauma as an unmarried mother, then abandonment of Karna, followed by her lifelong grief. BabyKarna is found and adopted by a charioteer but he grows up to become the greatest warrior and one of the central heroes of the great war ofKurukshetra.[47]
Iconography
Buddhism and Jainism
AHellenistic coin ofPlato of Bactria (145–130 BCE) with the sun godHelios (left), and depiction of Surya in a Buddhist relief atBodh Gaya (2nd century BCE), its earliest known depiction in India (right).[48][49]
Surya on his charriot with horses,Bhaja Caves (1st cent BCE).
Earliest representations of Surya riding a chariot occur in the Buddhist railings of theMahabodhi temple inBodhgaya (2nd century BCE), in theBhaja Caves (1st century BCE), and theJain cave of Ananta Gumpha inKhandagiri (1st century CE).[49] They follow similar depiction of the chariot-riding godHelios of Hellenistic mythology, as appearing for example on the coinage ofGreco-Bactrian kings, such asPlato I.[48]
The iconography of Surya has varied over time. In some ancient arts, particularly from the early centuries of the common era, his iconography is similar to those found in Persia and Greece suggesting likely adoption of Greek, Iranian and Scythian influences.[51][26]After the Greek and Kushan influences arrived in ancient India, some Surya icons of the period that followed show himwearing a cloak and high boots.[52][53]In some Buddhist artwork, his chariot is shown as being pulled by four horses.[16] The doors of Buddhist monasteries of Nepal show him, along with theChandra (moon god), symbolically with Surya depicted as a red circle with rays.[54]
In Hindu context, the sun-god only appears at a later period, as in theVirūpākṣa temple inPaṭṭadakal (8th century CE).[48] The iconography of Surya in Hinduism varies with its texts. He is typically shown as a resplendent standing person holding a lotus flower in both hands, riding a chariot pulled by one or more horses typically seven.[55]The seven horses are named after the seven meters ofSanskrit prosody: Gayatri, Brihati, Ushnih, Jagati, Trishtubha, Anushtubha and Pankti.
Aniconic symbols of Surya include the Swastika and the ring-stone.[52] In various texts includingMahabharata,Suryasataka, or Prasasti of Vatsabhatti, Surya is depicted as being worshipped by a host of semi-divine beings. These beings, namelySiddhas,Charanas,Gandharvas,Yaksas,Guhyakas, and theNagas, desirous of obtaining boons, follow the course of Surya's chariot through the sky.[60]
Astronomy
Surya means Sun in Indic literature. Above: Sunrise inUttarakhand, India
Surya as an important heavenly body appears in various Indian astronomical texts inSanskrit, such as the 5th centuryAryabhatiya byAryabhata, the 6th centuryRomaka by Latadeva andPanca Siddhantika by Varahamihira, the 7th centuryKhandakhadyaka by Brahmagupta and the 8th centurySisyadhivrddida by Lalla.[61]These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion.[61] Other texts such asSurya Siddhanta dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets with deity mythologies.[61]
The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions, present Surya- and planets-based calculation and its relative motion to earth. These vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives.[62][61][63] For example, the 10th century BCE Hindu scholars had estimated the sidereal length of a year as follows, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results:[64]
The oldest of these is likely to be theSurya Siddhanta, while the most accurate is theSiddhanta Shiromani.[64]
Zodiac and astrology
Surya (center) is typically depicted holding lotus flowers and riding in a horse-drawn chariot. He is accompanied by his wives (bottom female figures) and children (other male figures). The dawn goddesses (top female figures) are depicted shooting arrows. Circa 9th century CE.
Surya's synonym Ravi is the root of the word 'Ravivara' orSunday in the Hindu calendar.[65] In both Indian and Greek-Roman nomenclature for days of the week, the Sunday is dedicated to the Sun.
Surya is a part of theNavagraha in Hindu zodiac system. The role and importance of the Navagraha developed over time with various influences. Deifying the sun and its astrological significance occurred as early as theVedic period and was recorded in theVedas. The earliest work of astrology recorded in India is theVedanga Jyotisha which began to be compiled in the 14th century BCE. It was possibly based on works from the Indus Valley Civilization as well as various foreign influences.[66]Babylonian astrology was the first to develop astrology and the calendar, and was adopted by multiple civilizations including India.[67][68]
The Navagraha developed from early works of astrology over time. The Sun and variousclassical planets were referenced in theAtharvaveda around 1000 BCE. The Navagraha was furthered by additional contributions fromWestern Asia, includingZoroastrian andHellenistic influences.[69] TheYavanajataka, or 'Science of theYavanas', was written by theIndo-Greek named "Yavanesvara" ("Lord of the Greeks") under the rule of theWestern Kshatrapa kingRudrakarman I. The Yavanajataka written in 120 BCE is often attributed to standardizing Indian astrology. The Navagraha would further develop and culminate in theShaka era with theSaka, or Scythian, people.
Additionally the contributions by the Saka people would be the basis of theIndian national calendar, which is also called the Saka calendar.
TheHindu calendar is aLunisolar calendar which records both lunar and solar cycles. Like the Navagraha, it was developed with the successive contributions of various works.
Temples and worship
Surya temples are found in many parts of India. More common than Surya temples are artwork related to Surya, which are found in all types of temples of various traditions within Hinduism, such as theHindu temples related to Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha, and Shakti.[71]Reliefs on temple walls, forts and artwork above doorways of many Hindu monasteries feature Surya.[72][71]
Many of the temples that contain Surya icons and artwork are dated to the second half of the 1st millennium BCE and early centuries of the 2nd millennium. The 11th-century Vaishnava temple at Kadwaha in Madhya Pradesh, for example, features a Surya artwork along with many other gods and goddesses at its doorway.[71] The 8th and 9th century goddess (Shaktism) temples of central India, similarly engrave Surya along with other Hindu gods within the temple.[71] The six century Shiva temple at Gangadhar in Rajasthan includes Surya.[73]Similar mentions are found in stone inscriptions found near Hindu temples, such as the 5th century Mandasor inscription.[74]These temples, states Michael Meister, do not glorify one god or goddess over the other, but present them independently and with equal emphasis in a complex iconography.[71]
Cave temples of India, similarly, dedicated to different gods and goddesses feature Surya.[75][76] For example, the 6th century carvings in theEllora Caves in Maharashtra as well as the 8th and 9th century artworks there, such as Cave 25, theKailasha Temple (Cave 16) and others feature complete iconography of Surya.[77][78]
Hindu temples predominantly have their primary entrance facing east, and their square principle based architecture is reverentially aligned the direction of the rising Surya.[79][80] This alignment towards the sunrise is also found in most Buddhist and Jaina temples in and outside of India.[81][82]
The most famous Surya temple is theKonark Sun Temple, a World Heritage Site inOrissa. Constructed in the 13th century by the Eastern Ganga dynasty, on a pre-existing pilgrimage site for Surya god, the temple architecture mimics a grand chariot with twelve wheels pulled by seven horses.[85][86]The temple features Surya in three representations, with the main large Surya destroyed and the temple damaged over the course of repeated Muslim invasions.[42]: 17–20 Besides Konark, there are two other sun temples in Orissa calledBiranchi Narayan Sun Temple.
There are sun temples in many parts of India, such asModhera, Gujarat.[87] It was sponsored by King Bhimdev of theChaulukya dynasty. Other major Surya temples are found in Kanakaditya Temple in Kasheli (Dist ratnagiri) –Maharashtra, near the famousGaltaji's temple in Jaipur, Rajasthan andAssam.
The Indian rulers were essentially worshipers of the sun and some of the sun temples were erected by them during the medieval period.[91] The sun temple known asJayaditya was constructed by king ofNandipuri, Jayabhatta II. This temple is situated at Kotipura near Kapika in the Bharukachha district.[92] The Surya temple ofBhinmal known asJagaswami Surya temple was also erected during this period.[93]
TheSun Temple of Multan (in modern-day Pakistan) contained a revered statue of Surya. It was one of the focal points of Hindu-Muslim religious conflicts.[94]After 871 BCE, Multan (Panjab) was under the rule by Arab princes, who kept the Surya temple hostage and desecrated it,[95] in order to threaten its destruction if the Indian Hindu rulers attacked them.[96] The early Muslim rulers taxed Hindu pilgrims for the privilege to visit the Surya temple, and this provided these rulers an important source of revenue.[97]The Surya temple was destroyed byIsmailiShia rulers in the late 10th century, who built a mosque atop the site, abandoning the Sunnicongregational mosque in Multan.[98] This Ismaili Shia mosque atop the Sun Temple's ruins was then destroyed by the Sunni rulerMahmud of Ghazni, the Surya temple was not rebuilt and an empty space left in place, actions that helped re-establish the importance of the Sunni mosque in Multan.[98]
While Shiva and Vishnu are more common in 1st millennium southeast Asian artwork such as those found inCambodia andThailand, archaeological evidence suggest god Surya were among the pantheon of ideas adopted early in these regions and retained after Buddhism became the dominant tradition.[99]
Nepalese stone sculpture depicting Surya
In KabulKhair Khāna, there is a Hindu temple dedicated to Surya,[100] of two distinct periods. The first period consisted of a mud-brick temple with possible human sacrifice remains dedicating it. This was then superseded by three distinct sanctuaries built of schist slabs, surrounded by subsidiary buildings of diaper masonry construction and an open-air altar in a semi-circular enclosure. The most important finds were two marble statues of Surya, the first example found during the original excavations (1934, Delegation Archaeologique Française Afghanistan), the second example found by accident in 1980.
In Nepal, many Surya temples and artworks trace to the medieval era, such as the 11th-century Thapahiti and Saugal-tol, and 12th century Naksal stone sculptures.[101]
Artifacts discovered at theSanxingdui culture foundedc. 1600 BCE, about 40 km from present dayChengdu, capital city ofSichuan province China reveal an ancient worship of sun-deity, similar to Surya. The artifacts include a gold sheet with design of four birds flying around the sun deity, and a bronze sculpture of the surya-chakra.[102]
In cultures, arts and other religions
Festivals
Various observances in the festival of Makar Sankranti.
Various festivals mark deity Surya and these vary regionally in India.Pongal orMakara Sankaranti is the most widely celebrated Hindu festival dedicated to the Sun God. These celebrate a good harvest. Other festivals that focus on Surya includeChhath of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and the neighboring regions,Samba Dashami andRatha Saptami are also major festivals celebrated in honour of Surya; Chhath is celebrated immediately afterDiwali with fasting for three days followed by bathing in river or tank with remembrance of Sun.[103] SimilarlyAytar Puja is celebrated in Goa.[104]The latter is known asAditya Ranubai inMaharashtra.[105]
The second day of thePongal harvest festival is dedicated to Surya in Tamil Nadu, and is called the "Surya Pongal".[21] Another festival named Kartik Puja marks Surya, along with Shiva, Vishnu, Lakshmi, Radha, Krishna and Tulsi. It is observed by Hindu women, typically with visit to rivers such as the Ganges, socialization and group singing.[106]
Dances
The repertoire of classical Indian dances such as theBharatanatyam include poses that signify rays of light beaming towards all of the universe, as a form of homage to Surya.[107]
Yoga
Sculpture depicting 12 asana's of Surya Namaskara A in Terminal T3 atIGIA Airport,New Delhi, India, created by Nikhil Bhandari.[108]
Sūrya namaskāra literally means sun salutation. It is aYoga warm up routine based on a sequence of gracefully linkedasanas.[109] The nomenclature refers to the symbolism of Sun as the soul and the source of all life. It is relatively a modern practice that developed in the 20th century.[110]
A yogi may develop a personalized yoga warm up routine assurya-namaskar to precede his or her asana practice.[111]
TheGayatri Mantra is associated with Surya (Savitr). The mantra's earliest appearance is in the hymn 3.62.10 of theRigveda.[112]
Might we make our own that desirable effulgence
of god Savitar, who will rouse forth our insights.
Gayatri mantra (translated by S. Jamison)[113][114]
Buddhism
Surya is celebrated as a deity in Buddhist works of art, such as the ancient works attributed toAshoka. He appears in a relief at theMahabodhi Temple in Bodhgaya, riding in a chariot pulled by four horses, with Usha and Prattyusha on his sides.[16] Such artwork suggests that the Surya as symbolism for the victory of good over evil is a concept adopted in Buddhism from an earlier Indic tradition.[16]
InChinese Buddhism, Surya (日天,Rìtiān) is regarded as one of theTwenty-Four Devas (二十四諸天,Èrshísì zhūtiān) who are guardian protective deities of Buddhism.[115]His statue is usually enshrined in theMahavira Hall of Chinese Buddhist temples, along with the other devas.[116]
InIndonesia. Surya (Indonesian:Batara Surya) was adapted intoIndonesian culture as the god who rules thesun, and was given the title "Batara".Batara Surya is famous for giving his heirlooms or gifts to the people he chooses. This god is famous for having many children from various women, among them fromDewi Kunti in theMahabharata who gave birth toAdipati Karna.
Batara Surya was hit when Anoman blamed Batara Surya for what happened to his mother, Dewi Anjani and her grandmother, who had been cursed by her husband. Anoman feels Batara Surya must be responsible so Anoman with his magic collects clouds from all over the world to cover the natural world so that the rays of the sun cannot reach the earth. Fortunately, this incident can be resolved amicably so that Anoman voluntarily removes the clouds again so that the natural world is exposed to the sun again. Surya has three queens namely Saranyu (also called Saraniya, Saranya, Sanjna, or Sangya), Ragyi, and Prabha. Saranyu is the mother of Vaiwaswata Manu (seventh Manu, the present day), and twinsYama (god of death) and his sister Yami. She also bore him the twins known asAswin, and the gods. Saranyu, unable to witness the bright light from Surya, created a clone of herself named Chaya, and orders her to act as Surya's wife during her absence. Chaya had two sons bySurya-Sawarni Manu (the eighth Manu, the next) and Sani (the god of theplanet Saturn), and two daughters-Tapti and Vishti. Batara Surya also had a son, Rewanta, or Raiwata, from Ragyi. Interestingly, Surya's two sons – Sani and Yama – are responsible for judging humans' lives, after death. Sani gives the results of one's actions through one's life through appropriate punishments and rewards, while Yama gives the results of one's actions after death.
In theRamayana, Surya is mentioned as the father of King Sugriva, who helped Rama and Lakshmana in defeating King Ravana. He also trains Hanoman as his teacher. In the Mahabharata, Kunti receives a mantra from a sage, Durvasa; if spoken, he will be able to summon every god and bear children by him. Believing in the power of this spell, Kunti unwittingly has summoned Surya, but when Surya appears, she gets scared and demands him to return. However, Surya has an obligation to fulfill the spell before returning. Surya miraculously made Dewi Kunti to give birth to a child, while maintaining her virginity so that she, as an unmarried princess, would not have to face any shame or be the target of questions from society. Kunti feels compelled to leave behind her son, Karna, who grows up to be one of the central characters in the great war ofKurukshetra.
In thePuranas inBali,Batara Surya is the most intelligent student ofShiva, so that Surya was given the titleSurya Raditya and used as an example to find out the intelligence or supernatural power of Shiva, and as a thank you fromBatara Surya, Shiva was given an honorary title by the name ofBatara Guru, because he is the teacher of the Gods. There are others who argue, however, that in the transformation of thePuranas which is the interpretation of themaharsi on the Vedic chess book, it wasDewa Surya who later turned intoLudra, who was finally called Shiva, so that in worship chants it is often called the termShiva Aditya.
In the concept ofGama Bali there is aPelinggih namedPelinggih Surya orPadmasana, which is a place to worship Shiva who manifests asShiva Raditya or the sun god. In theYayur Veda there are several special rituals for the Sulinggih who worship God in the morning in its manifestation as theSurya Batara, namely those that come fromSurya Sewana orSurya Namaskar which means worshiping theSurya Batara. In the Panca Sembah mantra, there is also a special mantra aimed atShiva Raditya. According to the general view, Batara Surya is worshiped because he is a witness to life and he is the best student of Lord Shiva, so he was given the titleHyang Siwa Raditya ("Surya student of Lord Shiva"). The importance ofDewa Surya in Bali can be seen from the existence ofSanggah Surya, which must always be present at everyYadnya ceremony in Bali. and this is poured in several Balinese literary manuscripts, one of which is theBhama Kertih Lontar.[122]
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^Katherine C. Zubko(2006)Embodying "Bhakti Rasa" in Bharata Natyam: An Indian-Christian Interpretation of "Gayatri" Mantra through DanceJournal of Hindu-Christian Studiesvolume 19, article 10, pages 38–39
^Hodous, Lewis; Soothill, William Edward (2004).A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms : with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index. London: Routledge / Curzon.ISBN0-203-64186-8.OCLC275253538.
^The number of Surya's wives varies across different scriptures. Typically, he is shown with two wives—Sanjna and Chhaya—but some texts also include others such as Rajni, Prabha, Nikshubha, Mahashveta, andUshas.[5][6][7]
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