Supernatural phenomena or entities are those beyond thelaws of the nature.[1] The term is derived from Medieval Latinsupernaturalis, from Latinsuper- 'above, beyond, outside of' +natura 'nature'.[1] Although the corollary term "nature" has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term "supernatural" emerged in theMiddle Ages[2] and did not exist in the ancient world.[3]
The supernatural ishypernymic to religion. Religions are standardized supernaturalist worldviews, or at least more complete than single supernaturalist views. Supernaturalism is the adherence to the supernatural (beliefs, and not violations of causality and the physical laws).
Occurring as both anadjective and anoun, antecedents of the modern Englishcompoundsupernatural enter the language from two sources: viaMiddle French (supernaturel) and directly from the Middle French's term's ancestor, post-Classical Latin (supernaturalis). Post-classical Latinsupernaturalis first occurs in the 6th century, composed of theLatinprefixsuper- andnātūrālis (seenature). The earliest known appearance of the word in the English language occurs in a Middle English translation ofCatherine of Siena'sDialogue (orcherd of Syon, around 1425;Þei haue not þanne þe supernaturel lyȝt ne þe liȝt of kunnynge, bycause þei vndirstoden it not).[6]
The semantic value of the term has shifted over the history of its use. Originally the term referred exclusively to Christian understandings of the world. For example, as an adjective, the term can mean "belonging to a realm or system that transcends nature, as that of divine, magical, or ghostly beings; attributed to or thought to reveal some force beyond scientific understanding or the laws of nature; occult, paranormal" or "more than what is natural or ordinary; unnaturally or extraordinarily great; abnormal, extraordinary". Obsolete uses include "of, relating to, or dealing withmetaphysics". As a noun, the term can mean "a supernatural being", with a particularly strong history of employment in relation to entities from themythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.[6]
The ancient world had no word that resembled "supernatural".[3] Dialogues fromNeoplatonic philosophy in the third century AD influenced the development of the concept of the supernatural, which later evolved throughChristian theology.[7] The termnature had existed since antiquity, with Latin authors likeAugustine using the word and its cognates at least 600 times inCity of God. In the medieval period, "nature" had ten different meanings and "natural" had eleven different meanings.[2]Peter Lombard, a medieval scholastic of the 12th century, explored causes beyond nature, questioning how certain phenomena could be attributed solely to God. In his writings, he used the termpraeter naturam to describe these occurrences.[2] In the scholastic period,Thomas Aquinas classified miracles into three categories: "above nature", "beyond nature" and "against nature". In doing so, he sharpened the distinction between nature and miracles more than the earlyChurch Fathers had done.[2] As a result, he had created a dichotomy of sorts of the natural and supernatural.[7] Though the phrase"supra naturam" was used since the 4th century AD, it was in the 1200s that Thomas Aquinas used the term"supernaturalis". Despite this, the term had to wait until the end of the medieval period before it became more popularly used.[2] The discussions on "nature" from the scholastic period were diverse and unsettled with some postulating that even miracles are natural and thatnatural magic was a natural part of the world.[2]
Themetaphysical considerations of the existence of the supernatural can be difficult to approach as an exercise in philosophy or theology because any dependencies on its antithesis, thenatural, will ultimately have to be inverted or rejected. One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of "natural" and the limits ofnaturalism. Concepts in the supernatural domain are closely related to concepts inreligiousspirituality andoccultism orspiritualism.
For sometimes we use the wordnature for thatAuthor of nature whom theschoolmen, harshly enough, callnatura naturans, as when it is said thatnature hath made man partly corporeal andpartly immaterial. Sometimes we mean by thenature of a thing theessence, or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call thequiddity of a thing, namely, theattribute orattributes on whose score it is what it is, whether the thing becorporeal or not, as when we attempt to define thenature of anangle, or of atriangle, or of afluid body, as such. Sometimes we takenature for an internal principle ofmotion, as when we say that a stone let fall in theair is bynature carried towards the centre of theearth, and, on the contrary, thatfire or flame doesnaturally move upwards towardfirmament. Sometimes we understand bynature the established course of things, as when we say thatnature makes thenight succeed theday,nature hath maderespiration necessary to thelife of men. Sometimes we takenature for anaggregate of powers belonging to a body, especially a living one, as whenphysicians say thatnature is strong or weak or spent, or that in such or suchdiseasesnature left to herselfwill do the cure. Sometimes we take nature for theuniverse, or system of the corporeal works ofGod, as when it is said of aphoenix, or achimera, that there is no such thing innature, i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express bynature asemi-deity or other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of.
And besides these more absolute acceptions, if I may so call them, of the wordnature, it has divers others (more relative), asnature is wont to be set or inopposition or contradistinction to other things, as when we say of a stone when it falls downwards that it does it by anatural motion, but that if it be thrown upwards its motion that way isviolent. So chemists distinguishvitriol intonatural andfictitious, or made by art, i.e. by the intervention of human power or skill; so it is said thatwater, kept suspended in a sucking pump, is not in itsnatural place, as that is which is stagnant in the well. We say also that wicked men are still in thestate ofnature, but the regenerate in a state ofgrace; that cures wrought bymedicines are natural operations; but themiraculous ones wrought byChrist and hisapostles weresupernatural.[8]
— Robert Boyle,A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature
Nomological possibility is possibility under the actuallaws of nature. Most philosophers sinceDavid Hume have held that the laws of nature are metaphysically contingent—that there could have been different natural laws than the ones that actually obtain. If so, then it would not be logically or metaphysically impossible, for example, for you to travel toAlpha Centauri in one day; it would just have to be the case that you could travel faster than the speed of light. But of course there is an important sense in which this is notnomologically possible; given that the laws of nature are what they are. In the philosophy ofnatural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something notoccurring, combined with an underlyingscientific theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by theobservation of a singlecounterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. Some philosophers, such asSydney Shoemaker, have argued that the laws of nature are in fact necessary, not contingent; if so, then nomological possibility is equivalent to metaphysical possibility.[9][10][11]
The termsupernatural is often used interchangeably withparanormal orpreternatural—the latter typically limited to an adjective for describing abilities which appear to exceed what is possible within the boundaries of the laws of physics.[12]Epistemologically, the relationship between the supernatural and the natural is indistinct in terms of natural phenomena that,ex hypothesi, violate the laws of nature, in so far as such laws arerealistically accountable.
Parapsychologists use the term psi to refer to an assumed unitary force underlying the phenomena they study. Psi is defined in theJournal of Parapsychology as "personal factors or processes in nature which transcend accepted laws" (1948: 311) and "which arenon-physical in nature" (1962:310), and it is used to cover both extrasensory perception (ESP), an "awareness of or response to an external event or influence not apprehended by sensory means" (1962:309) or inferred from sensory knowledge, and psychokinesis (PK), "the direct influence exerted on a physical system by a subject without any known intermediate energy or instrumentation" (1945:305).[13]
— Michael Winkelman,Current Anthropology
Views on the "supernatural" vary, for example it may be seen as:
indistinct from nature. From this perspective, some events occur according to thelaws of nature, and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, inScholasticism, it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it did not lead to a logicalcontradiction. Some religions posit immanent deities, however, and do not have a tradition analogous to the supernatural; some believe that everything anyone experiences occurs by the will (occasionalism), in the mind (neoplatonism), or as a part (nondualism) of a more fundamental divine reality (platonism).
incorrect human attribution. In this view all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such aslightning,rainbows,floods and theorigin of life.[14][15]
Anthropological studies across cultures indicate that people do not hold or use natural and supernatural explanations in a mutually exclusive or dichotomous fashion. Instead, the reconciliation of natural and supernatural explanations is normal and pervasive across cultures.[16] Cross cultural studies indicate that there is coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in both adults and children for explaining numerous things about the world, such as illness, death, and origins.[17][18] Context and cultural input play a large role in determining when and how individuals incorporate natural and supernatural explanations.[19] The coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in individuals may be the outcomes two distinct cognitive domains: one concerned with the physical-mechanical relations and another with social relations.[20] Studies on indigenous groups have allowed for insights on how such coexistence of explanations may function.[21]
Adeity (/ˈdiːəti/ⓘ or/ˈdeɪ.əti/ⓘ)[22] is a supernatural being considereddivine orsacred.[23] TheOxford Dictionary of English defines deity as "a god or goddess (in apolytheistic religion)", or anything revered as divine.[24]C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to newlevels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life."[25] A male deity is agod, while a female deity is agoddess.
Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship.Monotheisticreligions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to asGod),[26][27]polytheistic religions accept multiple deities.[28]Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as equivalent aspects of the same divine principle;[29][30] andnontheistic religions deny any supreme eternalcreator deity but accept apantheon of deities which live, die and are reborn just like any other being.[31]: 35–37 [32]: 357–358
An angel is generally a supernatural being found in variousreligions andmythologies. InAbrahamic religions andZoroastrianism, angels are often depicted as benevolent celestial beings who act as intermediaries betweenGod orHeaven andEarth.[50][51] Other roles of angels include protecting and guiding human beings and carrying out God's tasks.[52] Within Abrahamic religions, angels are often organized intohierarchies, although such rankings may vary between sects in each religion, and are given specific names or titles, such asGabriel or "Destroying angel". The term "angel" has also been expanded to various notions of spirits or figures found in other religious traditions. The theological study of angels is known as "angelology".
Prophecy involves a process in which messages are communicated by a god to aprophet. Such messages typically involve inspiration, interpretation, orrevelation of divine will concerning the prophet's social world and events to come (comparedivine knowledge). Prophecy is not limited to any one culture. It is a common property to all known ancient societies around the world, some more than others. Many systems and rules about prophecy have been proposed over several millennia.
Inreligion andtheology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form oftruth orknowledge through communication with adeity or other supernatural entity or entities.
A revelation communicated by a supernatural entity reported as being present during the event is called avision. Direct conversations between the recipient and the supernatural entity,[61] or physical marks such asstigmata, have been reported. In rare cases, such as that of SaintJuan Diego, physical artifacts accompany the revelation.[62] TheRoman Catholic concept ofinterior locution includes just an inner voice heard by the recipient.
In theAbrahamic religions, the term is used to refer to the process by whichGod reveals knowledge of himself, hiswill and hisdivine providence to the world of human beings.[63] In secondary usage, revelation refers to the resulting human knowledge about God,prophecy and otherdivine things. Revelation from a supernatural source plays a less important role in some other religious traditions such asBuddhism,Confucianism andTaoism.
Although the majority of denominations withinChristianity andIslam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers ofCathars,Alawites, theDruze[71] and theRosicrucians.[72] The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic ofNeoplatonism,Orphism,Hermeticism,Manicheanism andGnosticism of theRoman era as well as the Indian religions, have been the subject of recent scholarly research.[73]Unity Church and its founderCharles Fillmore teaches reincarnation.
Karma (/ˈkɑːrmə/;Sanskrit:कर्म,romanized: karma,IPA:[ˈkɐɽmɐ]ⓘ;Pali:kamma) means action, work or deed;[75] it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect).[76] Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and future suffering.[77][78]
InCatholic theology, the supernatural order is, according toNew Advent, defined as "the ensemble of effects exceeding the powers of the created universe and gratuitously produced by God for the purpose of raising the rational creature above its native sphere to a God-like life and destiny."[84] TheModern Catholic Dictionary defines it as "the sum total of heavenly destiny and all the divinely established means of reaching that destiny, which surpass the mere powers and capacities of human nature."[85]
It is not possible, in process metaphysics, to conceive divine activity as a "supernatural" intervention into the "natural" order of events. Process theists usually regard the distinction between the supernatural and the natural as a by-product of the doctrine of creationex nihilo. In process thought, there is no such thing as a realm of the natural in contrast to that which is supernatural. On the other hand, if "the natural" is defined more neutrally as "what is in the nature of things", then process metaphysics characterizes the natural as the creative activity of actual entities. In Whitehead's words, "It lies in the nature of things that the many enter into complex unity" (Whitehead 1978, 21). It is tempting to emphasize process theism's denial of the supernatural and thereby highlight that the processed God cannot do in comparison what the traditional God could do (that is, to bring something from nothing). In fairness, however, equal stress should be placed on process theism's denial of the natural (as traditionally conceived) so that one may highlight what the creatures cannot do, in traditional theism, in comparison to what they can do in process metaphysics (that is, to be part creators of the world with God).[86]
— Donald Viney, "Process Theism" inThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Another belief is in anaxis mundi orworld tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world and theunderworld. InIndian religions, heaven is considered asSvarga loka,[87] and the soul is again subjected torebirth in different living forms according to itskarma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achievesMoksha orNirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to asotherworld.
Theunderworld is the supernatural world of the dead in variousreligious traditions, located below the world of the living.[88]Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld.
The concept of an underworld is found in almost every civilization and "may be as old as humanity itself".[89] Common features of underworldmyths are accounts ofliving people making journeys to the underworld, often for someheroic purpose. Other myths reinforce traditions that entrance of souls to the underworld requires a proper observation of ceremony, such as the ancient Greek story of the recently deadPatroclus hauntingAchilles until his body could be properly buried for this purpose.[90] Persons having social status were dressed and equipped in order to better navigate the underworld.[91]
A number of mythologies incorporate the concept of the soul of the deceased making its own journey to the underworld, with the dead needing to be taken across a defining obstacle such as a lake or a river to reach this destination.[92] Imagery of such journeys can be found in both ancient and modern art. The descent to the underworld has been described as "the single most important myth for Modernist authors".[93]
Aspirit is a supernatural being, often but not exclusively anon-physical entity; such as ademon,ghost,fairy,jinn orangel.[94] The concepts of a person's spirit andsoul, often also overlap, as both are eithercontrasted with orgiven ontological priority over thebody and both are believed to survive bodily death in some religions,[95] and "spirit" can also have the sense of "ghost", i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person. In EnglishBibles, "the Spirit" (with a capital "S"), specifically denotes theHoly Spirit.
Historically, it was also used to refer to a "subtle" as opposed to "gross" material substance, as in the famous last paragraph ofSir Isaac Newton'sPrincipia Mathematica.[96]
Magic orsorcery is the use ofrituals,symbols, actions,gestures, orlanguage with the aim of utilizing supernatural forces.[99][100]: 6–7 [101][102]: 24 Belief in and practice of magic has been present since the earliest human cultures and continues to have an important spiritual, religious and medicinal role in many cultures today. The termmagic has a variety of meanings, and there is no widely agreed upon definition of what it is.
Scholars of religion have defined magic in different ways. One approach, associated with theanthropologistsEdward Tylor andJames G. Frazer, suggests that magic andscience are opposites. An alternative approach, associated with thesociologistsMarcel Mauss andEmile Durkheim, argues that magic takes place in private, whilereligion is a communal and organised activity. Many scholars of religion have rejected the utility of the termmagic and it has become increasingly unpopular within scholarship since the 1990s.[citation needed]
The termmagic comes from theOld Persianmagu, a word that applied to a form of religious functionary about which little is known. During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BC, this term was adopted intoAncient Greek, where it was used with negative connotations, to apply to religious rites that were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional and dangerous. This meaning of the term was then adopted byLatin in the first century BC. The concept was then incorporated intoChristian theology during the first century AD, where magic was associated withdemons and thus defined against religion. This concept was pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, although in the early modern period Italianhumanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to establish the idea ofnatural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term were retained in Western culture over the following centuries, with the former largely influencing early academic usages of the word.
Throughout history, there have been examples of individuals who practiced magic and referred to themselves as magicians. This trend has proliferated in the modern period, with a growing number of magicians appearing within theesoteric milieu.[not verified in body] British esotericistAleister Crowley described magic as the art of effecting change in accordance with will.
Divination (from Latindivinare "to foresee, to be inspired by a god",[103] related todivinus,divine) is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of anoccultic, standardized process or ritual.[104] Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, oromens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency.[105]
Divination can be seen as a systematic method with which to organize what appear to be disjointed, random facets of existence such that they provide insight into a problem at hand. If a distinction is to be made between divination andfortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social character, usually in areligious context, as seen intraditional African medicine. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular divination methods vary by culture and religion.
Divination is dismissed by thescientific community andskeptics as beingsuperstition.[106][107] In the 2nd century,Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of acharlatan, "Alexander the false prophet", trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure and successions to estates".[108]
Witchcraft or witchery broadly means the practice of and belief inmagical skills and abilities exercised bysolitary practitioners and groups.Witchcraft is a broad term that varies culturally and societally and thus can be difficult to define with precision,[109] andcross-cultural assumptions about the meaning or significance of the term should be applied with caution. Witchcraft often occupies a religiousdivinatory or medicinal role[110] and is often present within societies and groups whosecultural framework includes a magicalworld view.[109]
Amiracle is an event not explicable by natural or scientific laws.[111] Such an event may be attributed to a supernatural being (adeity), amiracle worker, asaint or a religious leader.
Informally, the word "miracle" is often used to characterise any beneficial event that is statistically unlikely but not contrary to the laws of nature, such as surviving a natural disaster, or simply a "wonderful" occurrence, regardless of likelihood, such as a birth. Other such miracles might be: survival of an illness diagnosed as terminal, escaping a life-threatening situation or 'beating the odds'. Somecoincidences may be seen as miracles.[112]
A true miracle would, by definition, be a non-natural phenomenon, leading many rational and scientific thinkers to dismiss them as physically impossible (that is, requiring violation of established laws of physics within their domain of validity) or impossible to confirm by their nature (because all possible physical mechanisms can never be ruled out). The former position is expressed for instance byThomas Jefferson and the latter byDavid Hume.Theologians typically say that, withdivine providence, God regularly works through nature yet, as a creator, is free to work without, above, or against it as well. The possibility and probability of miracles are then equal to the possibility and probability of theexistence of God.[113]
Skepticism (American English) or scepticism (British English;see spelling differences) is generally any questioning attitude ordoubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief.[114][115] It is often directed at domains such as the supernatural, morality (moral skepticism), religion (skepticism about the existence of God), or knowledge (skepticism about the possibility of knowledge, or of certainty).[116]
^ab"Supernatural"(Online).A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion. Oxford Reference Online – Oxford University Press.The ancients had no word for the supernatural any more than they had for nature.
^Pasulka, Diana; Kripal, Jeffrey (23 November 2014)."Religion and the Paranormal".Oxford University Press blog. Oxford University Press.Archived from the original on 15 February 2015. Retrieved24 October 2018.
^Halman, Loek (2010). "8. Atheism And Secularity In The Netherlands". In Phil Zuckerman (ed.).Atheism and Secularity Vol.2: Gloabal Expressions. Praeger.ISBN9780313351839."Thus, despite the fact that they claim to be convinced atheists and the majority deny the existence of a personal god, a rather large minority of the Dutch convinced atheists to believe in a supernatural power!" (e.g. telepathy, reincarnation, life after death, and heaven)
^Winkelman, M.; et al. (February 1982). "Magic: A Theoretical Reassessment [and Comments and Replies]".Current Anthropology.23 (1):37–66.doi:10.1086/202778.JSTOR274255.S2CID147447041.
^Legare, Cristine H.; Visala, Aku (2011). "Between Religion and Science: Integrating Psychological and Philosophical Accounts of Explanatory Coexistence".Human Development.54 (3):169–184.doi:10.1159/000329135.S2CID53668380.
^Legare, Cristine H.; Evans, E. Margaret; Rosengren, Karl S.; Harris, Paul L. (May 2012). "The Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations Across Cultures and Development: Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations".Child Development.83 (3):779–793.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01743.x.hdl:2027.42/91141.PMID22417318.
^Aizenkot, Dana (11 September 2020). "Meaning-Making to Child Loss: The Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations of Death".Journal of Constructivist Psychology.35:318–343.doi:10.1080/10720537.2020.1819491.S2CID225231409.
^Whitehouse, Harvey (2011). "The Coexistence Problem in Psychology, Anthropology, and Evolutionary Theory".Human Development.54 (3):191–199.doi:10.1159/000329149.S2CID145622566.
^Becking, Bob; Dijkstra, Meindert; Korpel, Marjo; Vriezen, Karel (2001).Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah. London: New York. p. 189.ISBN9780567232120. RetrievedJune 28, 2017.The Christian tradition is, in imitation of Judaism, a monotheistic religion. This implies that believers accept the existence of only one God. Other deities either do not exist, are seen as the product of human imagination or are dismissed as remanents of a persistent paganism
^abTrigger, Bruce G. (2003).Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 441–442.ISBN9780521822459.[Historically...] people perceived far fewer differences between themselves and the gods than the adherents of modern monotheistic religions. Deities were not thought to be omniscient or omnipotent and were rarely believed to be changeless or eternal
^John Murdoch,English Translations of Select Tracts, Published in India – Religious Texts atGoogle Books, pages 141–142;Quote: "We [monotheists] find by reason and revelation that God is omniscient, omnipotent, most holy, etc, but the Hindu deities possess none of those attributes. It is mentioned in theirShastras that their deities were all vanquished by the Asurs, while they fought in the heavens, and for fear of whom they left their abodes. This plainly shows that they are not omnipotent."
^Taliaferro, Charles; Marty, Elsa J. (2010).A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion. New York: Continuum. pp. 98–99.ISBN9781441111975.
^Wilkerson, W.D. (2014).Walking With The Gods. Sankofa. pp. 6–7.ISBN978-0991530014.
^Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael (2008).Encyclopedia of Hinduism. London: Routledge. pp. 899–900.ISBN9781135189792.Archived from the original on January 17, 2023. RetrievedJune 28, 2017.
^see Charles Taliaferro, Paul Draper, Philip L. Quinn,A Companion to Philosophy of Religion. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, page 640,Google BooksArchived 2022-12-12 at theWayback Machine
^Gananath Obeyesekere,Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth. University of California Press, 2002, page 15.
^Hitti, Philip K (2007) [1924].Origins of the Druze People and Religion, with Extracts from their Sacred Writings (New Edition). Columbia University Oriental Studies.28. London: Saqi. pp. 13–14.ISBN0-86356-690-1
^An important recent work discussing the mutual influence of ancient Greek and Indian philosophy regarding these matters isThe Shape of Ancient Thought byThomas McEvilley
Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, New York, pp 679–680, Article on Karma; Quote – "Karma meaning deed or action; in addition, it also has philosophical and technical meaning, denoting a person's deeds as determining his future lot."
The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Robert Ellwood & Gregory Alles,ISBN978-0-8160-6141-9, pp 253; Quote – "Karma: Sanskrit word meaning action and the consequences of action."
Hans Torwesten (1994), Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism,ISBN978-0802132628, Grove Press New York, pp 97; Quote – "In the Vedas the word karma (work, deed or action, and its resulting effect) referred mainly to..."
^Viney, Donald (2008)."Process Theism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.).The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 ed.).Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved2012-08-06.
^OED "spirit 2.a.: The soul of a person, as commended to God, or passing out of the body, in the moment of death."
^Burtt, Edwin A. (2003).Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 275.
^S. T. JoshiIcons of Horror and the Supernatural: An Encyclopedia of Our Worst Nightmares, Band Greenwood Publishing Group 2007ISBN978-0-313-33781-9 page 34
^Hutton, Ronald (1995).The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy (Reprint ed.). Oxford; Cambridge: Blackwell. pp. 289–291, 335.ISBN978-0631189466.
^Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja (1991).Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality (Reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521376310.
^Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2006).Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism (Unabridged ed.). Leiden: Brill. p. 718.ISBN978-9004152311.
^Mauss, Marcel; Bain, Robert; Pocock, D. F. (2007).A General Theory of Magic (Reprint ed.). London: Routledge.ISBN978-0415253963.
^"Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted."utm.eduArchived 2009-01-13 at theWayback Machine
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Riekki T, Lindeman M, Raij T. T. (2014). "Supernatural Believers Attribute More Intentions to Random Movement than Skeptics: An fMRI Study".Social Neuroscience.9 (4):400–411.doi:10.1080/17470919.2014.906366.PMID24720663.S2CID33940568.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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