.jpg) | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
 est. 200 million[1](14.61% of the population)[2] (c. 2023) | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Uttar Pradesh | 38,483,970[3] |
| West Bengal | 24,654,830[3] |
| Bihar | 17,557,810[3] |
| Maharashtra | 12,971,150[3] |
| Assam | 10,679,350[3] |
| Kerala | 8,873,470[3] |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 8,567,490[3] |
| Andhra Pradesh (includes present-day Telangana) | 8,082,410[3] |
| Karnataka | 7,893,070[3] |
| Rajasthan | 6,215,380[3] |
| Religions | |
| MajoritySunni Islam with minorShia[4] | |
| Languages | |
Liturgical
| |
Islam is India'ssecond-largest religion, with 14.2% of the country's population, or approximately 172.2 million people, identifying as adherents ofIslam in a 2011 census.[7]India has thethird-largest number ofMuslims in theworld.[8][9] Most of India's Muslims areSunni, withShia making up around 15% of the Muslim population.[10][need quotation to verify]
Islam first spread in southern Indian communities along the Arab coastal trade routes inGujarat and inMalabar Coast shortly after the religion emerged in theArabian Peninsula. Later, Islam arrived in the northern inland ofIndian subcontinent in the 7th century when the Arabs invaded and conqueredSindh. It arrived inPunjab andNorth India in the 12th century via theGhaznavids andGhurids conquest and has since become a part of India'sreligious and cultural heritage. The Barwada Mosque inGhogha,Gujarat built before 623 CE,Cheraman Juma Mosque (629 CE) inMethala,Kerala andPalaiya Jumma Palli (or The Old Jumma Masjid, 628–630 CE) inKilakarai,Tamil Nadu are three ofthe first mosques in India which were built byseafaringArabmerchants.[11][12][13][14][15] According to thelegend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE atKodungallur in present-dayKerala with the mandate of the last ruler (the Tajudeen Cheraman Perumal) of theChera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of theIslamic prophetMuhammad (c. 570–632). Similarly,Tamil Muslims on the eastern coasts also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. The local mosques date to the early 700s.[16]
The vast majority of the Muslims in India belong toSouth Asian ethnic groups. However, some Indian Muslims were found with detectable, traceable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from the Middle East and Central Asia.[17][18][19] However, they are found in very low levels.[19] Sources indicate that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of the concept ofKafa'a.[20][21][22] Those who are referred to asAshrafs are presumed to have a superior status derived from their foreignArab ancestry,[23][24] while the Ajlafs are assumed to be converts fromHinduism, and have a lower status.
This social stratification, however, stands in direct contrast to the core Islamic theological principle of the equality of all believers. Orthodox Islamic doctrine holds that all Muslims constitute a single community (Ummah), and the Quran and Hadith strongly emphasize unity and brotherhood, rejecting divisions based on ethnicity or lineage.[25] This principle is exemplified in theFarewell Sermon of the Prophet Muhammad, which states: "All mankind is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab; a white has no superiority over a black, nor does a black have any superiority over a white; except by piety and good action."[26] In light of these teachings, many Islamic scholars (ulema) argue that the existence of a caste-like hierarchy is a cultural practice that contradicts the foundational tenets of the religion. However, other scholars and community leaders maintain that marrying within one's own caste or social group is preferable, a practice that remains widely observed in India.[27][28]
In two of the three genetic studies referenced here, in which is described that samples were taken from several regions of India's Muslim communities, it was again found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated, with some having minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from theArabian peninsula.[18]
Research on the comparison of Y chromosomes of Indian Muslims with other Indian groups was published in 2005.[18][19] In this study 124 Sunnis and 154 Shias of Uttar Pradesh were randomly selected for their genetic evaluation. Other than Muslims, Hindu higher and middle caste group members were also selected for the genetic analysis. Out of 1021 samples in this study, only 17 samples showed E haplogroup and all of them were Shias. The very minor increased frequency however, does place these Shias, solely with regards to their haplogroups, closer to Iraqis, Turks and Palestinians.[18][19]
Trade relations have existed between Arabia and theIndian subcontinent since ancient times. Even in thepre-Islamic era, Arab traders used to visit theKonkan-Gujarat coast andMalabar Coast, which linked them with the ports ofSoutheast Asia. Newly Islamised Arabs were Islam's first contact with India. Historians Elliot and Dowson say in their bookThe History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians, that the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. H. G. Rawlinson in his bookAncient and Medieval History of India[29] claims that the firstArab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century CE. This fact is corroborated by J. Sturrock in hisMadras District Manuals[30] and by Haridas Bhattacharya inCultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.[31] With the rise of Islam, Arabs emerged as a significant cultural force on the global stage. Through their extensive trade and commerce networks, Arab merchants and traders became key ambassadors of the faith, shared its teachings wherever they traveled.[32]
According to popular tradition,Islam was brought toLakshadweep islands, situated just to the west ofMalabar Coast, byUbaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island ofAndrott.[33] A fewUmayyad (661–750 CE) coins were discovered fromKothamangalam in the eastern part ofErnakulam district,Kerala.[34] According toKerala Muslim tradition, theMasjid Zeenath Baksh atMangalore is one of the oldest mosques in theIndian subcontinent.[35] According to theLegend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE atKodungallur in present-dayKerala with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) ofChera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of theIslamic prophetMuhammad (c. 570–632).[36][37][38] According toQissat Shakarwati Farmad, theMasjids atKodungallur,Kollam,Madayi,Barkur,Mangalore,Kasaragod,Kannur,Dharmadam,Panthalayini, andChaliyam, were built during the era ofMalik Dinar, and they are among the oldestMasjids in theIndian subcontinent.[39] It is believed thatMalik Dinar died atThalangara inKasaragod town.[40]
The first Indianmosque,Cheraman Juma Mosque, is thought to have been built in 629 CE byMalik Deenar[41] although some historians say the first mosque was inGujarat in between 610 and 623 CE.[42] InMalabar, theMappilas may have been the first community to convert to Islam.[43] Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and many other natives embraced Islam. According to legend, two travellers from India, MoulaiAbdullah (formerly known as Baalam Nath) and Maulai Nuruddin (Rupnath), went to the court ofImamMustansir (427–487 AH)/(1036–1094 CE) and were so impressed that they converted to Islam and came back to preach in India in 467 AH/1073 CE. Moulai Ahmed was their companion.Abadullah was the firstWali-ul-Hind (saint of India). He came across a married couple named Kaka Akela and Kaki Akela who became his first converts in theTaiyabi (Bohra) community.[citation needed]
Historical evidence shows that Arabs and Muslims interacted with Indians from the early days of Islam and possibly before the arrival of Islam in Arab regions. Arab traders transmitted thenumeral system developed by Indians to the Middle East and Europe.[44]
ManySanskrit books were translated into Arabic as early as the 8th century.George Saliba in his book "Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance", writes that "some major Sanskrit texts began to be translated during the reign of the secondAbbasid caliph al-Mansur (r. 754–775), if not before; some texts on logic even before that, and it has been generally accepted that the Persian and Sanskrit texts, few as they were, were indeed the first to be translated."[45]
Commercial intercourse between Arabia and India had gone on from time immemorial, with for example the sale of dates and aromatic herbs by Arabs traders who came to Indian shores every spring with the advent of themonsoon breeze. People living on the western coast of India were as familiar with the annual coming of Arab traders as they were with the flocks of monsoon birds. However, whereas monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of few months, not all traders returned to their homes in the desert; many married Indian women and settled in India.[46]
The advent ofMuhammad (569–632 CE) transformed the previouslyidolatrous and fragmented Arabs into a nation unified by faith and driven by a shared commitment to spreading the message of Islam. Arab merchant seamen, who had long brought goods like dates to South India, now introduced the new religion, which found a warm reception in the region.South Indian communities welcomed the construction of mosques and facilitated cultural integration, including intermarriage between Arabs and local women. This led to the formation of a distinct Indian-Arabian Muslim community. By the early 9th century, Muslim missionaries in Malabar achieved a significant milestone when they inspired the conversion of the local king to Islam.[46]
According to historian Derryl N. Maclean, early connections between Sindh (in present-day Pakistan) and theShia supporters of Ali can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi. Acompanion of Muhammad, Hakim traveled through Sind toMakran in 649 CE, reporting on the region to the Caliph. A devoted supporter of Ali, Hakim died in theBattle of the Camel alongside SindhiJats.[47] He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise ofAli ibn Abu Talib have survived, as reported in Chachnama.[48][a]
During Ali's leadership, numerous Jats in Sind embraced Islam,[51] influenced by the efforts of figures like Harith ibn Murrah al-Abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, officers in Ali’s army. In 658 CE, they led campaigns against Sindhibandits, pursuing them as far as Al-Qiqan (modern-dayQuetta).[52] Sayfi was later killed in 660 CE near Damascus as one of seven loyal companions of Ali who were beheaded alongsideHujr ibn Adi al-Kindi.[53] in 660 CE, near Damascus.
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Muhammad bin Qasim (672 CE), at the age of 17, was the first Muslim general to invade the Indian subcontinent, managing to reachSindh. In the first half of the 8th century CE, a series of battles took place between theUmayyad Caliphate and the Indian kingdoms; resulted inUmayyad campaigns in India checked and contained to Sindh.[54][b] Around the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic empire, theGhaznavids, underMahmud of Ghazni (971–1030 CE), was the second, much more ferocious invader, usingswift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains. Eventually, under theGhurids, the Muslim army broke into the North Indian Plains, which lead to the establishment of the IslamicDelhi Sultanate in 1206 by the slaves of the Ghurid dynasty.[55] The sultanate was to control much ofNorth India and to make many forays into South India. However, internal squabbling resulted in the decline of the sultanate, and new Muslim sultanates such as theBengal Sultanate in the east breaking off,[56] while in the Deccan theUrdu-speaking colonists from Delhi, who carried theUrdu language to the Deccan, founded theBahmanid Empire.[57] In 1339,Shah Mir became the firstMuslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating theSalatin-i-Kashmir orShah Mir dynasty.[58]
Under theDelhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis ofIndian civilization with that ofIslamic civilization, and the integration of the Indian subcontinent with a growing world system and wider international networks spanning large parts ofAfro-Eurasia, which had a significant impact onIndian culture and society.[59] The time period of their rule included the earliest forms ofIndo-Islamic architecture,[60][61] increased growth rates inIndia's population andeconomy,[62] and the emergence of theHindustani language.[63] The Delhi Sultanate was also responsible for repelling theMongol Empire's potentially devastatinginvasions of India in the 13th and 14th centuries.[64] The period coincided with a greater use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. From the 13th century onwards, India began widely adopting mechanical technologies from theIslamic world, includingwater-raising wheels withgears andpulleys, machines withcams andcranks,[65]papermaking technology,[66] and thespinning wheel.[67]
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In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers,[68] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[69] The resultingMughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[70] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[71] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[72] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially underAkbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[71] The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[73] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[74] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[72] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[72] resulting in greater patronage ofpainting, literary forms, textiles, andarchitecture.[75] The Mughal Empire was theworld's largest economy in the 17th century, larger thanQing China andWestern Europe, with Mughal India producing about a quarter of the world's economic and industrial output.[76][77]
In the 18th century, Mughal power had become severely limited. By the mid-18th century, theMarathas had routed Mughal armies and invaded several Mughal provinces from thePunjab toBengal.[78] By this time, the dominant economic powers in the Indian subcontinent wereBengal Subah under theNawabs of Bengal and the South IndianKingdom of Mysore underHyder Ali andTipu Sultan, before the former was devastated by theMaratha invasions of Bengal,[79][80] leading to theeconomy of the Kingdom of Mysore overtaking Bengal.[81] TheBritish East India Company conqueredBengal in 1757 and thenMysore in the late 18th century. The last Mughal emperor,Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Old Delhi (Shahjahanabad), before he was exiled to Burma by theBritish Raj after theIndian Rebellion of 1857.[citation needed]
The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is documented in the history of India's struggle for independence.Titumir raised a revolt against theBritish Raj.Abul Kalam Azad,Hakim Ajmal Khan andRafi Ahmed Kidwai are other Muslims who engaged in this endeavour.[citation needed]Ashfaqulla Khan ofShahjahanpur conspired to loot the British treasury atKakori(Lucknow) (SeeKakori conspiracy).[citation needed]Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (popularly known as "Frontier Gandhi") was a noted nationalist who spent 45 of his 95 years of life in jail;Barakatullah of Bhopal was one of the founders of theGhadar Party, which created a network of anti-British organisations; Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar Party worked as an underground revolutionary in France and was hanged for his part in the unsuccessfulGhadar Mutiny in 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui ofFaizabad (UP) planned theIndian Mutiny inMalaya andBurma, along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain ofJaunpur, and was hanged in 1917;Vakkom Abdul Khader was a member of Azad Hind Fauj and was hanged in 1943; Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire from Bombay, providedMahatma Gandhi with Congress expenses and ultimately died for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women,Hazrat Mahal, Asghari Begum, and Bi Amma contributed in the struggle for independence from the British.[citation needed]
Other famous Muslims who fought for independence againstBritish rule wereAbul Kalam Azad,Mahmud al-Hasan ofDarul Uloom Deoband, who was implicated in the famousSilk Letter Movement to overthrow the British through an armed struggle,Hussain Ahmad Madani, former Shaikhul Hadith ofDarul Uloom Deoband,Ubaidullah Sindhi,Hakim Ajmal Khan,Hasrat Mohani, Syed Mahmud,Ahmadullah Shah, ProfessorMaulavi Barkatullah,Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi,Zakir Husain,Saifuddin Kitchlew,Vakkom Abdul Khader, Manzoor Abdul Wahab,Bahadur Shah Zafar, Hakeem Nusrat Husain,Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan,Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai, Colonel Shahnawaz,Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari,Rafi Ahmed Kidwai,Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, V. M. Obaidullah, S.R. Rahim,Badruddin Tyabji,Abid Hasan and Moulvi Abdul Hamid.[82][83]
Until 1920,Muhammad Ali Jinnah, later the founder ofPakistan, was a member of theIndian National Congress and was part of the independence struggle.Muhammad Iqbal, poet and philosopher, was a strong proponent of Hindu–Muslim unity and an undivided India, perhaps until 1930.Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was also active in the Indian National Congress in Bengal, during his early political career.Mohammad Ali Jouhar andShaukat Ali struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for independence alongsideMahatma Gandhi and Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.[citation needed]
I find no parallel in history for a body of converts and their descendants claiming to be a nation apart from the parent stock.
— Mahatma Gandhi, opposing the division of India on the basis of religion in 1944.[84]
Thepartition ofBritish India led to the creation of thedominions ofPakistan (that later split into theIslamic Republic of Pakistan and thePeople's Republic of Bangladesh) andIndia (laterRepublic of India). TheIndian Independence Act 1947 had decided 15 August 1947, as the appointed date for the partition. However, Pakistan celebrates its day of creation on 14 August.[citation needed]
The partition of India was set forth in the Act and resulted in the dissolution of the British Indian Empire and the end of theBritish Raj. It resulted in a struggle between the newly constituted states of India and Pakistan and displaced up to 12.5 million people with estimates of loss of life varying from several hundred thousand to a million (most estimates of the numbers of people who crossed the boundaries between India and Pakistan in 1947 range between 10 and 12 million).[85] The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of mutual hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plaguestheir relationship to this day.[citation needed]
The partition included the geographicaldivision of the Bengal province intoEast Bengal, which became part of Pakistan (from 1956,East Pakistan).West Bengal became part of India, and a similar partition of thePunjab province becameWest Punjab (later thePakistani Punjab andIslamabad Capital Territory) andEast Punjab (later theIndian Punjab, as well asHaryana andHimachal Pradesh). The partition agreement also included the division of Indian government assets, including theIndian Civil Service, theIndian Army, theRoyal Indian Navy, theIndian railways and the central treasury, and other administrative services.[citation needed]
The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier inKarachi, at the time the capital of the new state of Pakistan, so that the last BritishViceroy,Lord Mountbatten of Burma, could attend both the ceremony in Karachi and the ceremony inDelhi. Thus,Pakistan's Independence Day is celebrated on 14 August andIndia's on 15 August.[citation needed]
AfterPartition of India in 1947, two-thirds of the Muslims resided in Pakistan (both east and West Pakistan) but a third resided in India.[86] Based on 1951 census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan (both West and East) from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan (both West and East).[87] Some critics allege that British haste in the partition process increased the violence that followed.[88] Because independence was declaredprior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.[89]
However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground.[90] Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.[90] Law and order had broken down many times before Partition with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,[90] perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.[91] The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.[92]
In March 2025, theIndian Parliament passed theWaqf (Amendment) Bill, which sparked widespread protests from Muslim organizations and opposition parties. The bill, which seeks to reform the governance ofwaqf properties; Muslim charitable endowments regulated under the Waqf Act, 1995; was introduced by the rulingBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in August 2024. The government claimed it aimed to improve transparency and accountability, including provisions for centralized registration, revised rules for property disputes, and the inclusion of non-Muslims on waqf boards. Critics, including theAll India Muslim Personal Law Board and parliamentarianAsaduddin Owaisi, argued that the bill was unconstitutional and infringed on minority rights. It was passed despite significant opposition in both houses and has since been challenged in the Supreme Court.[93][94]
With around 204 million Muslims (2019 estimate), India's Muslim population is theworld's third-largest[95][96] and the world's largest Muslim-minority population.[97] India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslim population.[95][98] Indian Muslims have a fertility rate of 2.36, the highest in the nation as per as according to year 2019-21 estimation.[99] In 2023, theGovernment of India estimated the Muslim population at 19.75 to 20 crore, out of 138.8 to 140.0 crore total population, thus constituting around (14.22%–14.28%) of the nation's population.[1][100][101][102][103][104]
Muslim populations (top 5 countries) Est. 2020[105][95][106][107][108]
| Country | Muslim Population | Percentage of Total Muslim Population |
|---|---|---|
 Indonesia | 231,070,000 | 12.2% |
 Pakistan | 233,046,950 | 11.2% |
 India | 207,000,000 | 10.9% |
 Bangladesh | 153,700,000 | 9.20% |
 Nigeria | 110,263,500 | 5.8% |
Muslims represent a majority of the local population inLakshadweep (96.2%) andJammu and Kashmir (68.3%). The largest concentration – about 47% of all Muslims in India, live in the three states ofUttar Pradesh,West Bengal, andBihar. High concentrations of Muslims are also found in the states ofAndhra Pradesh,Assam,Delhi,Gujarat,Jharkhand,Karnataka,Kerala,Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra,Manipur,Rajasthan,Tamil Nadu,Telangana,Tripura, andUttarakhand.[109]
 |  |
As of 2021[update], Muslims comprise the majority of the population in the only Indian union territory ofJammu and Kashmir and in a Union territoryLakshadweep.[110] In 110 minority-concentrated districts, at least a fifth of the population are Muslim.[111]
| States/territory | Population ( ) | (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Lakshadweep | 62,268 | 96.58 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 8,567,485 | 68.31 |
| Assam | 10,679,345 | 34.22 |
| West Bengal | 24,654,825 | 27.01 |
| Kerala | 8,873,472 | 26.56 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 38,483,967 | 19.26 |
| Bihar | 17,557,809 | 16.87 |
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Parts of Assam were not included in the 1981 census data due to violence in some districts.[citation needed] Jammu and Kashmir was not included in the 1991 census data due to militant activity in the state.[citation needed] Source:[114][110] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Region-wise distribution of Muslims leaving for Pakistan (1951 Census)[115] -
| Region | Population | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| East Punjab | 5.3 million | 73.61% |
| Uttar Pradesh,Delhi,Rajasthan, and other parts of India | 1.2 million | 16.67% |
| West Bengal andBihar | 0.7 million | 9.72% |
| Total | 7.2 million | 100% |
After India's Independence and thecreation of Pakistan in 1947, the Muslim population in India declined from 42,400,000 (13.3%) in 1941 to 35,400,000 (9.8%) in the1951 census due to thePartition of India.[114] The Pakistan Census, 1951 identified the number of displaced persons in the country at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims refugees who had entered Pakistan from India.[116][117] Around 35 million Muslims stayed back after Partition asJawaharlal Nehru (then thePrime Minister of India) have ensured the confidence that they would be treated fairly in this democratic nation.[118][119]
In the1941 Census, there were 94.5 million Muslims living in theUndivided India (inc.Pakistan andBangladesh), comprising 24 percent of the population. Partition, in fact, has eventually drained India of 60% of its Muslim population respectively.[120][121]
Former Minister of Law and Justice of India,Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar during partition, have advocated for a full population exchange between the Muslim and Hindu minorities of India and Pakistan for maintenance of law, order and peace in both the newly formed nations by citing- "That the transfer of minorities is the only lasting remedy for communal peace is beyond doubt" in his own written book "Pakistan or partition of India" respectively.[122][123][124][125]
However, a complete population exchange did not occur and was made impossible due to the earlier signing of theLiaquat–Nehru Pact in 1950, which sealed the borders of both nations completely. Ultimately, this led to the cessation of migration of refugees from both sides.[126][127] As a result of this, a large number ofMuslims in India, a significant number of Hindus inEast Pakistan (present-dayBangladesh) and a minuscule number ofHindus in the Sindh province ofWest Pakistan remained. Meanwhile, theEast Punjab state of India and theWest Punjab province ofPakistan saw a full population exchange between Muslim and Hindu/Sikh minorities during the time ofPartition.[128]
India is the home of some 40,000 illegalRohingya Muslim refugees, with approximately 18,000 registered with theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). But even people with refugee cards are being detained across India due to security concerns.[129] A small number ofUyghurs also reside in India, primarily inJammu and Kashmir. Around 1,000 illegal Uyghur refugees arrived in India in 1949 to escape the communist regime.[130] On 17 November 2016, Union Minister of State for Home,Kiren Rijiju, stated in theRajya Sabha that, according to available inputs, there are around 20 million (2 crore) illegal Bangladeshi migrants staying in India.[131] Illegal immigrants in Assam are estimated to number between 16 lakh and 84 lakh, in a total population of 3.12 crore according to the2011 Census.[132] A report published by DNA has revealed that the Bangladeshi-origin Muslim population has grown to 5–7% in bordering districts ofAssam andBengal simultaneously.[133][134] Muminul Aowal, an eminent Assamese Muslim Minority Development Board Chairman, has reported that Assam has about 1.3 crore Muslims of which around 90 lakh are of Bangladeshi origin.[135] According to Chief MinisterHimanta Biswa Sarma, among the 19 lakh individuals excluded from the AssamNational Register of Citizens, 7 lakh are Muslims.[136] Dr. Kuntal Kanti Chattoraj, HOD of Geography at P.R.M.S. Mahavidyalaya, Bankura, estimates that around 6.28 million Bangladeshi Muslims have migrated to West Bengal over the decades.[137]
Muslims in India have a much highertotal fertility rate (TFR) compared to that of other religious communities in the country.[138] Because of higher birthrates the percentage of Muslims in India has risen from about 9.8% in 1951 to 14.2% by 2011.[139] However, since 1991, the largest decline in fertility rates among all religious groups in India has occurred among Muslims.[140] TheSachar Committee Report shows that the Muslim Population Growth has slowed down and will be on par with national averages.[141] The Sachar Committee Report estimated that the Muslim proportion will stabilise at between 17% and 21% of the Indian population by 2100.[142]Pew Research Center have projected that India will have 311 million Muslims by 2050, out of total 1.668 billion people, thus constituting 18.4% of the country's population.[143][144] TheUnited Nations has projected India's population to rise to 170.53 crore by 2050, and then fall to 165.97 crore by 2100.[145]
On 29 June 2021, Pew Research Center reports on Religiosity have been published, where they completed 29,999 face-to-face interviews with non-institutionalized adults ages 18 and older living in 26 states and three union territories across India. They interviewed 3,336 Muslims and found that 79% of those interviewed believed in the existence of God with absolute certainty, 12% believes in the existence of God with less certainty and 6% of the Indian Muslims have declared themselves asAtheists by citing that they don't believe in any God. However 91% of Muslim interviewed have said religion plays a big part in their lives.[146][147][148]
CSDS study reports, have found that Indian Muslims have become ‘less religious’ since 2016. In that same year, the study founds that 97 per cent of Muslim respondents have said that they prayed regularly. However, in 2021, it was found that only 86 per cent of Muslim youth prayed regularly which is an absolute decline of 11 percentage points from the last five years respectively.[149]
Social and economic reasons behind population growth[150]
| Census information for 2011: Hindu and Muslim compared.[151] | ||
|---|---|---|
| Composition | Hindus | Muslims |
| % total of population 2011 | 79.8 | 14.2 |
| 10-yr. Growth % (est. 2001–11) | 16.8 | 24.6 |
| Sex ratio* | 939 | 951 |
| Literacy rate (avg. 64.8) | 63.6 | 57.9 |
| Work Participation Rate | 41 | 33 |
| Urban sex ratio | 894 | 907 |
| Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs.) | 913 | 943 |
According tosociologists Roger and Patricia Jeffery, socio-economic factors, rather than religious determinism, play a more significant role in explaining the higher birthrates among Indian Muslims.[152] Studies suggest that Muslims in India tend to have lower income levels and educational attainment compared to Hindus. However, B. K. Prasad, a noted Indian sociologist, highlights that due to the higherurbanization among Indian Muslims, their infant mortality rate is about 12% lower than that of Hindus.[153]
However, some sociologists suggest that religious and cultural factors may also contribute to higher birthrates among Muslims in India. Surveys indicate that, on average, Muslim families are more traditional in their approach tofamily planning, and Muslim women tend to marry at a younger age compared to Hindu women, leading to a longerfertility period.[154]
On the other hand, it is also documented that Muslims tend to adopt family planning measures.[155] A study conducted by K. C. Zacharia in Kerala in 1983 revealed that on average, the number of children born to a Muslim woman was 4.1 while a Hindu woman gave birth to only 2.9 children. Religious customs and marriage practices were cited as some of the reasons behind the high Muslim birth rate.[156] According toPaul Kurtz, Muslims in India are much more resistant to modern contraception than are Hindus and, as a consequence, the decline in fertility rate among Hindu women is much higher compared to that of Muslim women.[157][158]
The National Family and Health survey conducted in 1998–99 highlighted that Indian Muslim couples consider a substantially higher number of children to be ideal for a family as compared to Hindu couples in India.[159] The same survey also pointed out that percentage of couples actively using family planning measures was more than 49% among Hindus against 37% among Muslims. According to a district wise fertility study by Saswata Ghosh, Muslim TFR (total fertility rate) is closer to that of the Hindu community in most southern states. Also TFR tends to be high for both communities in Northern states such asUttar Pradesh andBihar. This study was based on the last census of the country from 2011.[160]
There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims: Sunni and Shia. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to theSunni branch of Islam,[10][161] while a minority (over 13%) belong to theShia branch.[162][10]
The majority of Indian Sunnis follow theBarelvi movement which was founded in 1904 byAhmed Razi Khan of Bareilly in defense of traditional Islam as understood and practised in South Asia and in reaction to the revivalist attempts of the Deobandi movement.[165][166] In the 19th century theDeobandi, a revivalist movement in Sunni Islam was established in India. It is named after Deoband a small town northeast of Delhi, where the original madrasa or seminary of the movement was founded. From its early days this movement has been influenced byWahhabism.[167][168][169]
In the coastal Konkan region of Maharashtra, the localKonkani Muslims follow theShafi'i school ofSunni Islamicjurisprudence.[170][171]
Shia Muslims are a large minority amongIndia's Muslims forming about 13% of the total Muslim population.[10] However, there has been no particular census conducted in India regarding sects, but Indian sources likeTimes of India andDaily News and Analysis reported Indian Shia population in mid 2005–2006 to be up to 25% of the entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40,000,000[172][173] to 50,000,000[174] of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.[175] However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, India's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30 million withSayyids comprising just a tenth of the Shia population.[176] According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world's second-largest afterIran.[177][178][179][180][181][182]
Bohra Shia was established in Gujarat in the second half of the 11th century. This community's belief system originates inYemen, evolved from theFatimid were persecuted due to their adherence to Fatimid Shia Islam – leading the shift of Dawoodi Bohra to India. After occultation of their 21stFatimid ImamTayyib, they follow Dai as representative of Imam which are continued till date.[citation needed]
Dā'ī Zoeb appointed Maulai Yaqoob (after the death of Maulai Abdullah), who was the second Walī al-Hind of theFatimid dawat. Moulai Yaqoob was the first person of Indian origin to receive this honour under the Dā'ī. He was the son of Moulai Bharmal, minister ofHinduSolanki KingJayasimha Siddharaja (Anhalwara, Patan). With Minister Moulai Tarmal, they had honoured the Fatimid dawat along with their fellow citizens on the call of Moulai Abdullah.Syedi Fakhruddin, son of Moulai Tarmal, was sent to westernRajasthan, India, andMoulai Nuruddin went to theDeccan (death: Jumadi al-Ula 11 at Don Gaum,Aurangabad,Maharashtra, India).[citation needed]
One Dai succeeded another until the 23rd Dai in Yemen. In India also Wali-ul-Hind were appointed by them one after another until Wali-ul-Hind Moulai Qasim Khan bin Hasan (11th and last Wali-ul-Hind, d. 950 AH,Ahmedabad).[citation needed]
Due to persecution by the localZaydi Shi'a ruler in Yemen, the 24th Dai,Yusuf Najmuddin ibn Sulaiman (d. 1567 CE), moved the whole administration of theDawat (mission) to India. The 25th DaiJalal Shamshuddin (d. 1567 CE) was first dai to die in India. His mausoleum is in Ahmedabad, India. The Dawat subsequently moved from Ahmedabad to Jamnagar[183] Mandvi, Burhanpur,Surat and finally to Mumbai and continues there to the present day, currently headed by 53rd Dai.[citation needed]
Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee was a Bohra and 20th century Islamic scholar from India who promoted modernization and liberalization of Islam through his writings. He argued that with changing time modern reforms in Islam are necessary without compromising on basic "spirit of Islam".[184][185][186]
The Khojas are a group of diverse people who converted toIslam inSouth Asia. InIndia, most Khojas live in the states ofGujarat,Maharashtra,Rajasthan, and the city ofHyderabad. Many Khojas have also migrated and settled over the centuries inEast Africa,Europe, andNorth America. The Khoja were by then adherents ofNizariIsmailism branch of Shi'ism. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the aftermath of theAga Khan case, a significant minority separated and adoptedTwelver Shi'ism orSunni Islam, while the majority remainedNizārī Ismā'īlī.[187]
Sufis (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence andmonism. The Sufis' orthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice.Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed,Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti,Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki,Nizamuddin Auliya,Shah Jalal,Amir Khusrow,Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari, Shekh Alla-ul-Haq Pandwi,Ashraf Jahangir Semnani,Waris Ali Shah,Ata Hussain Fani Chishti trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from theartisan anduntouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions.Ahmad Sirhindi, a prominent member of theNaqshbandiSufi advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.[188]
The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 byMirza Ghulam Ahmad ofQadian. He claimed to be the promised messiah andmahdi awaited by the Muslims and obtained a considerable number of followers initially within the United Provinces, thePunjab andSindh.[189] Ahmadis claim the Ahmadiyya movement to embody the latter day revival of Islam and the movement has also been seen to have emerged as an Islamic religious response to the Christian andArya Samaj missionary activity that was widespread in 19th century India. After the death of Ghulam Ahmad, hissuccessors directed the Ahmadiyya Community from Qadian which remained the headquarters of the community until 1947 with the creation ofPakistan. The movement has grown in organisational strength and in its own missionary programme and has expanded to over 200 countries as of 2014 but has received a largely negative response from mainstream Muslims who see it as heretical, due mainly to Ghulam Ahmad's claim to be a prophet within Islam.[190]
Ahmaddiya have been identified as sects of Islam in2011 Census of India apart from Sunnis, Shias, Bohras and Agakhanis.[191][192][193][194] India has a significant Ahmadiyya population.[195] Most of them live in Rajasthan,Odisha, Haryana, Bihar, Delhi,Uttar Pradesh, and a few inPunjab in the area of Qadian. In India, Ahmadis are considered to be Muslims by the Government of India (unlike in neighbouring Pakistan). This recognition is supported by a court verdict (Shihabuddin Koya vs. Ahammed Koya, A.I.R. 1971 Ker 206).[196][197] There is no legislation that declares Ahmadis non-Muslims or limits their activities,[197] but they are not allowed to sit on theAll India Muslim Personal Law Board, a body of religious leaders India's government recognises as representative of Indian Muslims.[198] Ahmadiyya are estimated to be from 60,000 to 1 million inIndia.[199]
Non-sectarian Muslims who reject the authority ofhadith, known asQuranists, Quraniyoon, or Ahle Quran, are also present in India. In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahle Quran movement formed partially in reaction to theAhle Hadith movement whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on hadith. Notable Indian Quranists includeChiragh Ali,Aslam Jairajpuri,Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din, and Abdullah Chakralawi.[200]
Sufism is a mystical dimension of Islam, often complementary with the legalistic path of thesharia had a profound impact on the growth of Islam in India. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behaviour, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples (murids) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry ofMoinuddin Chishti (1142–1236), who settled inAjmer and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. HisChishti Order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature inregional languages that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.[citation needed]
The Sunnis and Shia are the biggest Muslim groups by denomination. Although the two groups remain cordial, there have been instances of conflict between the two groups, especially in the city of Lucknow.[201]
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The religious administration of eachstate is headed by theMufti of the State under the supervision of theGrand Mufti of India, the most senior, most influential religious authority and spiritual leader ofMuslims inIndia. The system is executed in India from the Mughal period.[202][203]
There are several well established Muslim institutions in India. Here is a list of reputed institutions established by Muslims inIndia.
Although Islam requiresegalitarianism and is against discrimination based on caste, creed orrace,[207][208][209] the caste system has developed among some Indian Muslims that deals with units of social stratification.[210]
Some Muslim scholars have tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Quranic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism.[22]
In parts of South Asia, Muslims are categorized into groups like Ashrafs and Ajlafs.[211][212] Ashrafs often claim foreign ancestry and are divided into various occupational castes.[23][24][213] Historian Ziauddin Barani emphasized caste distinctions, advocating higher status for the "sons of Muhammad" (Sayyids)[214] and proposing that state laws (zawabi) enforce these divisions, even over Sharia in some cases.[214] He attributed "ignoble" professions to the Ajlaf and sought religious endorsement for this hierarchy. Barani also developed a caste-based framework for appointing and promoting imperial officers (wazirs).[214]
Beyond the Ashraf/Ajlaf divide, the Arzal caste represents groups associated with professions deemed menial,[215] such as waste disposal.[216] Anti-caste activistBabasaheb Ambedkar likened the Arzal to untouchables.[217] The term "Arzal," meaning "degraded," encompasses subdivisions like the Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, and Mehtar, reflecting the persistence of caste-based stratification in parts of the Muslim community.[217][218]
South Asian Muslims have also been known to organize their society throughqaums or communal groups.[219] Studies of Bengali Muslims in India reveal that notions of purity and impurity continue to influence inter-group relationships, withsocial status often tied to perceived cleanliness rather than economic conditions.[24] Among Indian Muslims, there are also distinctions like the Muslim Rajputs, as well as upper and middle-caste communities such asSyed,Shaikh,Shaikhzada,Khanzada,Pathan,Mughal, andMalik.[220] Genetic data has also supported this stratification.[221] Genetic studies of South Asian Muslims have supported the existence of these stratifications, showing that their genetic makeup closely resembles that of local non-Muslims, with small but notable influences from Iran and Central Asia rather than the ArabianPeninsula.[18]
Some scholars argue that caste discrimination among Muslims is less severe than in Hindu society,[citation needed] but Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar disagreed, claiming that social injustices within Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society."[citation needed] He criticized the Ashraf community for their hostility towards the Ajlaf and Arzal groups and condemned the Muslim community for failing to implement needed reforms.[citation needed]
Data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.[222] They have good interactions with the other communities. They participate in marriages and funerals and other religious and social events in other communities. Some of them also had inter-caste marriages since centuries but mostly they preferred to marry in the same caste with a significant number of marriages beingconsanguineous.[citation needed] InBihar state of India, cases had been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.[220]
Some scholars argue that caste discrimination among Muslims is less severe than in Hindu society,[22][222]] but Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar disagreed, claiming that social injustices within Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society."[217] He criticized the Ashraf community for their hostility towards the Ajlaf and Arzal groups.[217]
Segregation of Indian Muslims from other communities began in the mid-1970s when the firstcommunal riots occurred. This was heightened after the1989 Bhagalpur violence in Bihar and became a trend after thedemolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992. Soon several major cities developedghettos, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved into.[223] This trend, however, did not help with the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the2002 Gujarat riots, several such ghettos became easy targets for the rioting mobs, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies.[224][225][226][227] This kind of ghettoisation can be seen inMumbai,Delhi,Kolkata and many cities ofGujarat where a clear socio-cultural demarcation exists between Hindu-dominated and Muslim-dominated neighbourhoods.[citation needed]
In places likeGujarat, riots and alienation of Muslims have led to large-scale ghettoisation of the community. For example, theJuhapura area ofAhmadabad has swelled from 250,000 to 650,000 residents since 2002 riots. Muslims in Gujarat have no option but to head to a ghetto, irrespective of their economic and professional status.[228]
An increase inghetto living has also shown a strengthening ofstereotyping due to a lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large.Secularism in India is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.[229][230][231]
TheNFHS (National Family Health Survey) on 1992-93 showed that 22 per cent of marriages in India were consanguineous, with the highest per cent recorded inJammu and Kashmir, a Muslim majority state. Post partition percentage ofconsanguineous marriages in Delhi Sunni Muslims has risen to 37.84 per cent. As per Nasir, such unions are perceived to be exploitative as they perpetuate the existing power structures within the family and similar scene in the Southern state[232][233]
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Architecture of India took new shape with the advent ofIslamic rule in India towards the end of the 12th century CE. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles.Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque built in 1193 CE was the first mosque to be built in theIndian subcontinent; its adjoining "Tower of Victory", theQutb Minar also started around 1192 CE, which marked the victory ofMuhammad of Ghor and his generalQutb al-Din Aibak, fromGhazni, Afghanistan, over localRajput kings, is now aUNESCO World Heritage Site inDelhi.[citation needed]
In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order, i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate, i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilisations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of theIndo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.[citation needed]
Islamic architecture in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.[citation needed]
There are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country, including theMuslim world.[234] The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. Amihrab indicates the direction of theqibla for prayer. Towards the right of themihrab stands theminbar or pulpit from where theImam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.[citation needed]
The tomb ormaqbara could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb's grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as thehuzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph orzarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or themaqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave orqabr. Smaller tombs may have amihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex orrauza is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called adargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.[citation needed]
Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the imperial style (1191–1557 CE); the provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas likeAhmedabad,Jaunpur and theDeccan; and theMughal architecture style (1526–1707 CE).[235]
Certain civil matters of jurisdiction for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance andwaqf properties are governed by the Muslim Personal Law,[236] which was developed during British rule and subsequently became part of independent India with some amendments.[237][238] Indian Muslim personal law is not developed as a Sharia law but as an interpretation of existing Muslim laws as part ofcommon law. TheSupreme Court of India has ruled thatSharia or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil law in such matters.[239]
Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."[240] It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts,waqf, wills and inheritance.[237] The courts generally apply theHanafi Sunni law for Sunnis; Shia Muslims are independent of Sunni law for those areas whereShia law differs substantially from Sunni practice.[citation needed]
TheIndian constitution provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion. Article 44 of the constitution recommends auniform civil code. However, attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under a common civil code is strongly resisted and is viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country. TheAll India Muslim Personal Law Board was established for the protection and continued applicability of "Muslim Personal Law", i.e. Shariat Application Act in India. TheSachar Committee was asked to report about the condition of Muslims in India in 2005. Almost all therecommendations of the Sachar Committee have been implemented.[241][242]
The following laws/acts of Indian legislation are applicable to Muslims in India (except in the state of Goa) regarding matters of marriage, succession, inheritance, child adoption etc.
Note: the above laws are not applicable in the state of Goa. TheGoa civil code, also called the Goa Family Law, is the set of civil laws that governs the residents of the Indian state of Goa. In India, as a whole, there are religion-specific civil codes that separately govern adherents of different religions. Goa is an exception to that rule, in that a single secular code/law governs all Goans, irrespective of religion, ethnicity or linguistic affiliation. The above laws are also not applicable to Muslims throughout India who had civil marriages under theSpecial Marriage Act, 1954.[citation needed]
Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan is an Indian Muslim women's organisation inIndia. It released a draft on 23 June 2014, 'Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act', recommending thatpolygamy be made illegal in theMuslim Personal Law of India.[243]
Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 was proposed for the changes in the citizenship and immigration norms of the country by relaxing the requirements for Indian citizenship. The applicability of the amendments are debated in news as it is on religious lines (excluding Muslims).[244][245][246]
India's Constitution and Parliament have protected the rights of Muslims but, according to some sources,[247][248][249] there has been a growth in a 'climate of fear' and 'targeting of dissenters' under theBharatiya Janata Party andModi ministry, affecting the feelings of security and tolerance amongst Indian Muslims. However, these allegations are not universally supported.[250]
India has seen three Muslim presidents and manychief ministers of State Governments have been Muslims. Apart from that, there are and have been many Muslim ministers, both at the centre and at the state level. Out of the 12Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims –Zakir Husain,Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed andA. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally,Mohammad Hidayatullah,Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi,Mirza Hameedullah Beg andAltamas Kabir held the office of theChief Justice of India on various occasions since independence.Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of thePresident of India, theVice-President of India and theChief Justice of India.[257][258]
The formerVice-President of India,Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former Foreign MinisterSalman Khurshid and former Director (Head) of theIntelligence Bureau,Syed Asif Ibrahim are Muslims. Ibrahim was the first Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr.S. Y. Quraishi served as theChief Election Commissioner of India.[259] He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats includeAbid Hussain,Ali Yavar Jung andAsaf Ali.Zafar Saifullah wasCabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.[260]Salman Haidar was theForeign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.[261][262]Tayyab Husain was the only politician in Indian history to serve as a Cabinet Minister in the government of three different states at different times. (Undivided Punjab,Rajasthan,Haryana).[263] Influential Muslim politicians in India includeSheikh Abdullah,Farooq Abdullah and his sonOmar Abdullah,Mufti Mohammad Sayeed,Mehbooba Mufti (whose served as Chief Minister ofJammu and Kashmir),Chaudhary Rahim Khan,Sikander Bakht,A. R. Antulay,Ahmed Patel,C. H. Mohammed Koya,A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury,Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi,Salman Khurshid,Saifuddin Soz,E. Ahamed,Ghulam Nabi Azad,Syed Shahnawaz Hussain,Asaduddin Owaisi,Azam Khan andBadruddin Ajmal,Najma Heptulla.
The government of India subsidized the cost of the airfare for IndianHajj pilgrims until it was totally phased out in 2018.[264] The decision to end the subsidy was in order to comply with aSupreme Court of India decision of 2011. Starting in 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person was decreased year on year and ended completely by 2018.[265][266]Maulana Mahmood A. Madani, a member of theRajya Sabha and general secretary of theJamiat Ulema-e-Hind, declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of IslamicSharia, since theQuran declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources.[267] Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is un-Islamic.[268]
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Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:[269]
Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism as the native religion that resisted it has been a point of contention, contributing to the failure of efforts to Islamize the Indian subcontinent and playing a significant role in the politics ofpartition andcommunalism.[269] The impact and consequences of the Muslim conquest of South Asia remain subjects of scrutiny and diverse viewpoints.
Will Durant characterizes the Muslim conquest of India as a particularly tumultuous chapter in history. He suggests that it was marked by significant violence and upheaval, which he attributes in part to factors such as internal divisions, the influence of religions likeBuddhism andJainism.[273]Jadunath Sarkar argues that some Muslim invaders waged a systematic jihad against Hindus, using various methods to force conversions.[274] Hindu converts to Islam faced discrimination within the Muslim social hierarchy, as outlined in Ziauddin al-Barani’s Fatawa-i Jahandari,[22] where they were placed in the Ajlaf caste and treated as inferior to the Ashraf castes.[275] Other perspectives suggest that the Muslim conquests led to persecution of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, with instances of massacres, temple destructions, and forced conversions.[276][277]
Sir Thomas Arnold andDe Lacy O'Leary, criticized the view that Islam was spread by force and sword as 'absurd.'[278] According toIra Lapidus, while instances of forced conversion in Muslim regions did occur, they were relatively infrequent. Muslim conquerors generally sought to exert control rather than enforce conversion, with the majority of conversions to Islam being voluntary in nature.[279][278]
Other critics of the "conversion by the sword theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent as a refutation to the "conversion by the sword theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today.[citation needed]
Muslim invaders were not all simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were born to Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs ofIbn Battuta who travelled throughDelhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world,Persia andAnatolia were often favoured with important posts at the royal courts, suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India – II) however points toMuhammad bin Tughluq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.[280]
Although, theMughals were generally known for their religious tolerance,[281][282][283][284] and actively patronized the arts and literature as well as cultural and religious exchange, blending Hindu and Islamic traditions,[281][282] numerous temples were destroyed by Muslim conquerors likeAurangzeb who was noted for his policies of religious intolerance non-Muslims.[web 1][285]
Richard M. Eaton lists a total of 80 temples that were desecrated by Muslim conquerors,[286] but notes this was not unusual inmedieval India where numerous temples were also desecrated by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms during conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, and between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.[287][288][289] He also notes there were many instances of theDelhi Sultanate, which often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources, and that attacks on temples had significantly declined under theMughal Empire.[286]
K. S. Lal, in his bookGrowth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, claimed that between 1000 and 1500 the Indian population decreased by 30 million,[290] but stated his estimates were tentative and did not claim any finality.[291][292][293] His work has come undercriticism by historians such asSimon Digby (SOAS, University of London) andIrfan Habib for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times.[294][295] Different population estimates by economics historiansAngus Maddison and Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35 million during that time.[296][297] TheIndian population estimates from other economic historians includingColin Clark, John D. Durand andColin McEvedy also show there was a population increase in India between 1000 and 1500.[298][299]
The conflict between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent has a complex history which can be said to have begun with theUmayyad Caliphate's invasion ofSindh in 711. The persecution of Hindus during the Islamic expansion in India during the medieval period was characterised by destruction of temples, often illustrated by historians by the repeated destruction of the Hindu Temple atSomnath[300][301] and the anti-Hindu practices of theMughal emperorAurangzeb.[302] Although there were instances of conflict between the two groups, a number of Hindus worshipped and continue to worship at the tombs of Muslim Sufi Saints.[303] During theNoakhali riots in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.[304][305]
The aftermath of thePartition of India in 1947 saw large scalesectarian strife and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then, India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These include the1969 Gujarat riots, the1970 Bhiwandi riots, the 1983Nellie massacre, and the1989 Bhagalpur violence. These conflicts stem in part from the ideologies ofHindu nationalism andIslamic extremism. Since independence,India has always maintained aconstitutional commitment tosecularism.[citation needed]
The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period was compromised greatly by the razing of theBabri Mosque inAyodhya. The demolition took place in 1992 and was perpetrated by theHindu nationalistBharatiya Janata Party and organisations likeRashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh,Bajrang Dal,Vishva Hindu Parishad andShiv Sena. This was followed bytit for tat violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country, giving rise to theBombay riots and the1993 Bombay bombings.[citation needed]
In the1998 Prankote massacre, 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.[306]
During the eruption of militancy in the 1990s, following persecution and threats by radical Islamists and militants, the nativeKashmiri Hindus were forced into an exodus fromKashmir, a Muslim-majority region in Northern India.[307][308] Mosques issued warnings, telling them to leave Kashmir, convert to Islam or be killed.[309] Approximately 300,000–350,000 pandits left the valley during the mid-80s and the 90s.[310] Many of them have been living in abject conditions in refugee camps ofJammu.[311]
One of the most violent events in recent times took place during theGujarat riots in 2002, where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most allegedly Muslim. Some sources claim there were approximately 2,000 Muslim deaths.[312] There were also allegations made of state involvement.[312][313] The riots were in retaliation to theGodhra train burning in which 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed site of theBabri Masjid, were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. Gujarat police claimed that the incident was a planned act carried out by extremist Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims. The Bannerjee commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident.[314] In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.[315]
In 2004, several Indian school textbooks were scrapped by theNational Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) after they were found to be loaded with anti-Muslim prejudice. The NCERT argued that the books were "written by scholars hand-picked by the previous Hindu nationalist administration". According toThe Guardian, the textbooks depicted India's past Muslim rulers "as barbarous invaders and the medieval period as a Dark Age of Islamic colonial rule which snuffed out the glories of the Hindu empire that preceded it".[319] In one textbook, it was purported that theTaj Mahal, theQutb Minar and theRed Fort – all examples of Islamic architecture – "were designed and commissioned by Hindus".[319]
In the2010 Deganga riots, rioting began on 6 September 2010, when anIslamist mob resorted to arson and violence on theHindu neighborhoods ofDeganga, Kartikpur and Beliaghata under theDeganga police station area. The violence began late in the evening and continued throughout the night into the next morning. Thedistrict police,Rapid Action Force,Central Reserve Police Force andBorder Security Force all failed to stop themob violence and theArmy was finally deployed.[320][321][322][323]
At least 77 people died[324] and 400,000 people were displaced in the2012 Assam violence between indigenousBodos and East Bengal rooted Muslims.[325]
The2020 Delhi riots, which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,[326][327] were triggered by protests against acitizenship law seen by many critics asanti-Muslim and part of Prime MinisterNarendra Modi'sHindu nationalist agenda.[328][329]
Sikhism emerged in thePunjab during theMughal period. Conflict between early Sikhs and the Muslim power center at Delhi reached an early high point in 1606 whenGuru Arjan, the fifth guru of the Sikhs, was tortured and killed by Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. After the death of the fifth beloved Guru his son took his spot asGuru Hargobind, who basically made the Sikhs a warrior religion. Guru ji was the first to defeat the Mughal empire in a battle which had taken place in presentSri Hargobindpur inGurdaspur[330] Later in the 16th century,Tegh Bahadur became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Teg Bahadur was executed by the Mughal EmperorAurangzeb for helping to protect Hindus, after a delegation ofKashmiri Pandits came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam.[331] At this point,Aurangzeb had instituted forceful conversions on the basis of charging citizens with crimes then sparing them from punishments (up to death) if they converted. This led to a high increase of violence between the Sikhs and Hindus as well as rebellions inAurangzeb's empire. This is an early example which illustrates how the Hindu-Muslim conflict and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts are connected. After this Guru Gobind Singh and the Sikhs helped the next successor of the throne of India to rise, who was Bahadur Shah Zafar. For a certain period of time good relations were maintained somewhat like they were inAkbar's time until disputes arose again. The Mughal period saw various invaders coming into India through Punjab with which they would loot and severely plunder. Better relations have been seen byDulla Bhatti,Mian Mir, Pir Budhu Shah, Pir Bhikham Shah,Bulleh Shah.[citation needed]
In 1699, theKhalsa was founded byGuru Gobind Singh, the last guru. A former ascetic was charged by Gobind Singh with the duty of punishing those who had persecuted the Sikhs. After the guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the leader of the Sikh army and was responsible for several attacks on the Mughal empire. He was executed by the emperorJahandar Shah after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam.[332] The decline of Mughal power during the 17th and 18th centuries, along with the growing strength of theSikh Empire, resulted in a balance of power which protected the Sikhs from more violence. The Sikh empire was absorbed into the British Indian empire after theSecond Anglo-Sikh War of 1849.[citation needed]
Massive population exchanges took place during thePartition of India in 1947, and the British Indian province of Punjab was divided into two parts, where the western parts were assigned to Pakistan, while the eastern parts went to India. 5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, as 3.4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.[333]
India is home to many eminent Muslims who have made their mark in numerous fields and have played a constructive role in India's economic rise and cultural influence across the world.Out of the 12Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims –Zakir Husain,Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed andA. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally, 4 Muslims:Mohammad Hidayatullah,Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi,Mirza Hameedullah Beg andAltamas Kabir held the office of theChief Justice of India.Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of thePresident of India, theVice-President of India and theChief Justice of India.[257][258]Tayyab Husain serves as a Cabinet Minister in the government of three different states (Punjab,Rajasthan,Haryana) at different times and became the only politician in Indian history to do so.[263]
Dr. Zakir Hussain,Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan,Maulana Abul Kalam Azad,Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam,Ustad Bismillah Khan are prominent Muslims of India who have been awardedBharat Ratna, highest civilian award of India.[334]
The formerVice-President of India,Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former Foreign MinisterSalman Khurshid are Muslims. Dr.S. Y. Quraishi andSyed Nasim Ahmad Zaidi both served as theChief Election Commissioner of India .[259] Prominent Indian Muslim bureaucrats and diplomats includeAbid Hussain,Ali Yavar Jung andAsaf Ali.Zafar Saifullah wasCabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.[260] Salman Haidar wasIndian Foreign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.[261][262] Numerous Muslims have achieved high rank in theIndian Police Service, with several attaining the rank ofDirector general of police and serving as commanders of both state andCentral Armed Police Forces. In 2013, IPS officerSyed Asif Ibrahim became the first Muslim Director of the Intelligence Bureau, the seniormost appointment in the service. There have been seven Muslim Chief Ministers ofIndian states (other thanJammu and Kashmir):
Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These includeYusuf Khan (stage name Dilip Kumar),[335]Shah Rukh Khan,[336]Salman Khan,Aamir Khan,[337]Saif Ali Khan,[338][339]Madhubala,[340]Nawazuddin Siddiqui,[341]Naseeruddin Shah,Johnny Walker,Shabana Azmi,[342]Waheeda Rehman,[343]Mumtaz,Amjad Khan,Ajit Khan,Kader Khan,Feroz Khan,Sanjay Khan,Meena Kumari,Prem Nazir,Mammootty,Dulquer Salmaan,Asif Ali,Nargis,Irrfan Khan,Farida Jalal,Arshad Warsi,Mehmood,Ali Fazal,Farhan Akhtar,Zeenat Aman,Raza Murad,Farooq Sheikh andTabu.
Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema includeMehboob Khan,Khwaja Ahmad Abbas,Nasir Hussain,Kamal Amrohi,K. Asif,Sultan Ahmed,Anees Bazmee,Mansoor Khan,Kabir Khan,Ali Abbas Zafar and theAbbas–Mustan duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre.M. F. Husain is one of India's best known contemporary artists.Academy Awards winnersResul Pookutty andA. R. Rahman,Naushad,Salim–Sulaiman and Nadeem Akhtar of theNadeem–Shravan duo are some of India's celebrated musicians.Abrar Alvi penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists includeShakeel Badayuni,Sahir Ludhianvi andMajrooh Sultanpuri. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith includeMohammed Rafi,Anu Malik,Mohammed Aziz,Lucky Ali,Javed Ali,Armaan Malik,Adnan Sami,Talat Mahmood andShamshad Begum. Another famous personality is thePadma Vibhushan awardeetabla maestroZakir Hussian.
Sania Mirza, fromHyderabad, is the highest-ranked Indian woman tennis player. Prominent Muslim names in Indiancricket (the most popular sport of India) includeIftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi,Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi andMohammad Azharuddin, who captained the Indian cricket team on various occasions. Other famous Muslim cricketers in India areMushtaq Ali,Syed Kirmani,Arshad Ayub,Mohammad Kaif,Munaf Patel,Zaheer Khan,Irfan Pathan,Yusuf Pathan,Mohammed Shami,Mohammed Siraj andWasim Jaffer.
India is home to several influential Muslim businessmen. Some of India's most prominent firms, such asWipro,Wockhardt, Himalaya Health Care,Hamdard Laboratories,Cipla and Mirza Tanners were founded by Muslims. The only two South Asian Muslim billionaires named byForbes magazine,Yusuf Hamied andAzim Premji, are from India.
Though Muslims are under-represented in theIndian Armed Forces, as compared toHindus andSikhs,[345] several Indian military Muslim personnel have earned gallantry awards and high ranks for exceptional service to the nation. Air Chief MarshalI. H. Latif was DeputyChief of the Air Staff (India) during theIndo-Pakistani War of 1971 and later served asChief of the Air staff of theIndian Air Force from 1973 to 1976.[346][347] Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer (1923–2008) commanded IAF Agra and was decorated for his service during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, eventually rising to the rank ofair marshal and ending his career as Director-General of Civil Aviation from 1979 to 1980.[348]Indian Army'sAbdul Hamid was posthumously awarded India's highest military decoration, theParam Vir Chakra, for knocking-out seven Pakistani tanks with a recoilless gun during theBattle of Asal Uttar in 1965.[349][350] Two other Muslims – Brigadier Mohammed Usman and Mohammed Ismail – were awardedMaha Vir Chakra for their actions during theIndo-Pakistani War of 1947.[351] High ranking Muslims in the Indian Armed Forces include:
Abdul Kalam, one of India's most respected scientists and the father of theIntegrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) of India, was honoured through his appointment as the 11thPresident of India.[356] His extensive contribution to India's defence industry lead him to being nicknamed as theMissile Man of India[357] and during his tenure as the President of India, he was affectionately known asPeople's President.Syed Zahoor Qasim, former Director of theNational Institute of Oceanography, led India's first scientific expedition toAntarctica and played a crucial role in the establishment ofDakshin Gangotri. He was also the former Vice Chancellor ofJamia Millia Islamia, Secretary of the Department of Ocean Development and the founder of Polar Research in India.[358] Other prominent Muslim scientists and engineers include C. M. Habibullah, a stem cell scientist and director ofDeccan College of Medical Sciences and Center for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Hyderabad.[359] In the field ofYunani medicine, one can nameHakim Ajmal Khan, Hakim Abdul Hameed andHakim Syed Zillur Rahman.Salim Ali, was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist, also known as the "birdman of India".
In the list of most influential Muslims list byGeorgetown University, there were 21 Indians (in 2017) likeMaulana Mahmood Madani,Akhtar Raza Khan,Zakir Abdul Karim Naik,Wahiduddin Khan, Abul Qasim Nomani Syed MuhammadAmeen Mian Qaudri,Aamir Khan and Aboobacker Ahmad Musliyar.Mahmood Madani, leader ofJamiat Ulema-e-Hind and MP was ranked at 36 for initiating a movement against terrorism in South Asia.[360] Syed Ameen Mian has been ranked 44th in the list.
In January 2018, Jamitha reportedly became the first woman to lead aJumu'ah prayer service in India.[361]
(Arabic:
ليس الرزيه بالدينار نفقدة
ان الرزيه فقد العلم والحكم
وأن أشرف من اودي الزمان به
أهل العفاف و أهل الجود والكريم[49]
"Oh Ali, owing to your alliance (with the prophet) you are truly of high birth, and your example is great, and you are wise and excellent, and your advent has made your age an age of generosity and kindness and brotherly love".[50]
... Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi ...
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into Muslim, Christian (Protestant), Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other Religions.[permanent dead link] Muslim 231,069,932 (86.7), Christian (Protestant)20,246,267 (7.6), Catholic 8,325,339 (3.12), Hindu 4,646,357 (1.74), Buddhist 2,062,150 (0.72), Confucianism 71,999 (0.03),Other Religions/no answer 112,792 (0.04), Total 266,534,836
The emergence of ... Barelvis, under the leadership of Maulana Ahmed Riza Khan ... he succeeded in founding the Madrassah Manzar al-Islam in Bareilly in 1904 ... Barlevis' vehement opposition to Deobandis and other contemporary reformists led Barbar Metcalf to conclude that the Barlevis were 'an oppositional group as much as they were reformers.'
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Noakhali.
Breaking gender stereotypes, a 34-year-old woman has led Jumu'ah, a Friday prayer service of Muslims, in Malappuram in Kerala, claimed to be the first in the history of the country. Jamitha, the general secretary of Quran Sunnat Society, took the role of the 'imam' of the prayers held at the office of the Society in the Muslim-dominated district on Friday.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. Country Studies.Federal Research Division.
