Sukhumi orSokhumi is a city in a wide bay on theBlack Sea's eastern coast. It is both thecapital and largest city ofAbkhazia, a partially recognized state that most countries consider a part ofGeorgia. The city has been controlled by Abkhazia since theAbkhazian war in 1992–93. The city, which has anairport, is a port, major rail junction and a holiday resort because of its beaches,sanatoriums, mineral-water spas and semitropical climate. It is also a member of theInternational Black Sea Club.[3]
Sukhumi's history can be traced to the 6th century BC, when it was settled by Greeks, who named it Dioscurias. During this time and the subsequent Roman period, much of the city disappeared under the Black Sea. The city was named Tskhumi when it became part of theKingdom of Abkhazia and then theKingdom of Georgia. Contested by local princes, it became part of theOttoman Empire in the 1570s, where it remained disputed until it was conquered by theRussian Empire in 1810.
InGeorgian, the city is known asSokhumi (სოხუმი), amongstSamurzakanians inMegrelian the city is sometimes referred to asAqujikha (აყუჯიხა),[5][6] and in Russian as Сухум (Sukhum) or Сухуми (Sukhumi). The toponym Sokhumi derives from the Georgian wordTskhomi/Tskhumi (ცხომი/ცხუმი), which in turn is supposed to be derived fromSvantskhum (ცხუმ) meaning "hornbeam tree".[7] In Abkhaz, the city is known asAqwa (Аҟәа) which is believed to derive froma-qwara (а-ҟәара), meaning "stony seashore".[6] According to Abkhaz traditionAqwa (Аҟәа) signifieswater.[8]
Medieval Georgian sources knew the town asTskhumi (ცხუმი).[9][10][11] Later, underOttoman control, the town was known in Turkish asSuhum-Kale (Ottoman Turkish:صخوم قلعه), which was derived from the earlier Georgian form Tskhumi or read to mean "Tskhumi fortress".[12][13]
The ending -i in the above forms represents the Georgian nominative suffix. The town was officially called Сухум (Sukhum) in Russian until 16 August 1936, when this was changed toSukhumi (Сухуми).[14] This remained so until 4 December 1992, when the Supreme Council of Abkhazia restored the previous version.[15] Russia also readopted its official spelling in 2008.[16]
The history of the city began in the mid-6th century BC when an earlier settlement of the second and early first millennia BC, frequented by localColchian tribes, was replaced by theMilesianGreek colony ofDioscurias (Greek:Διοσκουριάς).[22][23] The city is said to have been founded[24][25] and named by theDioscuri, the twins Castor and Pollux ofclassical mythology. According to another legend it was founded by Amphitus and Cercius ofSparta, the charioteers of the Dioscuri.[26][27] The Greek pottery found inEshera, further north along the coast, predates findings in the area of Sukhumi bay by a century suggesting that the centre of the original Greek settlement could have been there.[28]
It became busily engaged in the commerce between Greece and the indigenous tribes, importing salt[29] and wares from many parts of Greece, and exporting local timber,linen, andhemp. It was also a prime center ofslave trade in Colchis.[30] The city and its surroundings were remarkable for the multitude of languages spoken in its bazaars.[31]
Although the sea made serious inroads upon the territory of Dioscurias, it continued to flourish and became one of the key cities in the realm ofMithridates VI of Pontus in the 2nd century BC and supported his cause until the end. Dioscurias issued bronze coinage around 100 BC featuring the symbols of theDioskuri andDionysus.[32] Under theRoman emperorAugustus the city assumed the name ofSebastopolis (Greek:Σεβαστούπολις).[33] But its prosperity was past, and in the 1st centuryPliny the Elder described the place as virtually deserted though the town still continued to exist during the times ofArrian in the 130s.[34] The remains of towers and walls of Sebastopolis have been found underwater; on land the lowest levels so far reached by archaeologists are of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. According toGregory of Nyssa there were Christians in the city in the late 4th century.[35] In 542 the Romans evacuated the town and demolished its citadel to prevent it from being captured bySasanian Empire. In 565, however, the emperorJustinian I restored the city wall and adorned Sebastopolis with streets and buildings.[36][37] The city wassacked by theArab conquerorMarwan II in 736 according toJuansher Juansheriani.[38]
Afterwards, the town came to be known asTskhumi.[39] Restored by the kings of Abkhazia from the Arab devastation, it particularly flourished during theGeorgian Golden Age in the 11th–12th centuries, when Tskhumi became the summer residence of theGeorgian kings and an important cultural and administrative center of theGeorgian state.[40] The city also became a major trade center after the Genoese established theirtrading port in Tskhumi in the end of 13th century.[41] A Catholic bishopric existed there which is now atitular see.[42] A Genoese consulate was established in 1354 with the consul dispatched fromCaffa. In spite of occasional conflicts with the locals, the consulate functioned until 1456.[41] In addition to the Genoese, the city was the home to Armenian, Muslim andJewish merchants.[43] The city was a major centre ofBlack Sea slave trade. Wax, wine and grain were exported to Europe via Sukhumi while cloth, luxury goods and salt were imported.[44] Tskhumi served as capital of theOdishi —Megrelian rulers, it was in this city thatVamek I (c. 1384–1396), the most influentialDadiani, minted his coins.[40]
The Sohum-Kale fort in the early 19th century.
Documents of the 15th century clearly distinguished Tskhumi fromPrincipality of Abkhazia.[45] TheOttoman navy occupied the town in 1451, but for a short time. Later contested between the princes ofAbkhazia andMingrelia, Tskhumi finally fell to the Turks in the 1570s. The new masters heavily fortified the town and called itSohumkale, withkale meaning "fort" but the first part of the name of disputed origin. It may representTurkishsu (Ottoman Turkish:صو), "water", andkum (Ottoman Turkish:قوم), "sand", but is more likely to be an alteration of its earlier Georgian name.[39]
At the request of the pro-Russian Abkhazian prince, the town was stormed by theRussian Marines in 1810 and turned, subsequently, into a major outpost in the North West Caucasus. (SeeRussian conquest of the Caucasus). Sukhumi was declared the seaport in 1847 and was directly annexed to theRussian Empire after the rulingShervashidze princely dynasty was ousted by the Russian authorities in 1864. During theRusso-Turkish War, 1877–1878, the town was temporarily controlled by the Ottoman forces and Abkhaz-Adyghe rebels. After its annexation, Sukhumi became the administrative center of theSukhumi Okrug.[46]
Sukhumi quay
Following theRussian Revolution of 1917, the town and Abkhazia in general were engulfed in the chaos of theRussian Civil War. A short-livedBolshevik government was suppressed in May 1918 and Sukhumi was incorporated into theDemocratic Republic of Georgia as a residence of the autonomous People's Council of Abkhazia and the headquarters of the Georgian governor-general. TheRed Army and the local revolutionaries took the city from the Georgian forces on 4 March 1921, and declared Soviet rule. Sukhumi functioned as the capital of the "Union treaty"Abkhaz Soviet Socialist Republic associated with theGeorgian SSR from 1921 until 1931, when it became the capital of the Abkhazian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the Georgian SSR. By 1989, Sukhumi had 120,000 inhabitants and was one of the most prosperous cities of Georgia.
Beginning with the1989 riots, Sukhumi was a centre of theGeorgian-Abkhaz conflict, and the city was severely damaged during the1992–1993 War. During the war, the city and its environs suffered almost daily air strikes and artillery shelling, with heavy civilian casualties.[47] On 27 September 1993 the battle for Sukhumi was concluded by a full-scale campaign ofethnic cleansing against its majority Georgian population (seeSukhumi Massacre), including members of the pro-Georgian Abkhazian government (Zhiuli Shartava,Raul Eshba and others) and mayor of SukhumiGuram Gabiskiria.Although the city has been relatively peaceful and partially rebuilt, it is still suffering the after-effects of the war, and it has not regained its earlier ethnic diversity. Its population in 2017 was 65,716, compared to about 120,000 in 1989. During summer holidays season its population usually doubles and triples with a large inflow of international tourists.[2]
In 2021, there wasunrest in the city leading to the resignation of PresidentAslan Bzhani.[48]
* The Abkhazians were collectively deemed guilty of the 1877 insurrection, leading to restrictions that forbade them from settling near the coast (except for members of the upper classes) or living in Sukhumi. The devastated central part of Abkhazia, modern-day Sukhumi and Gulripshi districts, between the rivers Psyrtskha andKodori became a colonized land-fund of the imperial administration. A buffer-zone was thus established between the Gudauta and Ochamchira Abkhazians. Abkhazians had no right to settle in this part of their own country. Meanwhile, thousands of Armenians, Mingrelians, Greeks, Russians, Estonians, Germans, and Moldovans were resettled there starting from 1879.[50]
** The 1916 almanac gives separate figures only for Russians, Kartvelians and Armenians.[49]
Sukhumi theatres which offer classical and modern performances, with the theatre season lasting from September to June. Several galleries and museums exhibit modern and historical Abkhaz visual art.Sukhumi Botanical Garden was established in 1840 to introduce new plants to the Caucasus.[51]
Medievalbridge over the Besletka river known as theQueen Tamar Bridge.
Sukhumi houses a number of historical monuments, notably theBesleti Bridge built during the reign of queenTamar of Georgia in the 12th century. It also retains visible vestiges of the defunct monuments, including the Roman walls, the medievalCastle of Bagrat, several towers of theKelasuri Wall, also known as Great Abkhazian Wall, constructed between 1628 and 1653 byLevan II Dadiani to protect his fiefdom from the Abkhaz tribes;[52] the 14th-century Genoese fort and the 18th-century Ottoman fortress. The 11th centuryKamani Monastery (12 kilometres (7 miles) from Sukhumi) is erected, according to tradition, over the tomb of SaintJohn Chrysostom.
Northward in the mountains is theKrubera Cave, one of the deepest in the world, with a depth of 2,140 meters.[53]
The city hosts a number of research and educational institutions, including theAbkhazian State University, the Sukhumi Open Institute and about half a dozen of vocational education colleges. From 1945 to 1954 the city's electron physics laboratory was involved in the Soviet program to develop nuclear weapons. Additionally, theAbkhaz State Archive is located in the city.[citation needed]
Until 19th century young people from Abkhazia usually received their education mainly at religious schools (Muslims at Madrasas and Christians at Seminaries), although a small number of children from wealthy families had opportunity to travel to foreign countries for education.[citation needed]
The first modern educational institutions (both schools and colleges) were established in the late 19th-early 20th century and rapidly grew until the second half of the 20th century. For example, the number of college students grew from few dozens in the 1920s to several thousands in the 1980s.[citation needed]
According to the official statistical data, Abkhazia has 12 TVET colleges (as of 2019, est.) providing education and vocational training to youth mostly in the capital city, though there are several colleges in all major district centers. Independent international assessments suggest that these colleges train in about 20 different specialties attracting between 1200 and 1500 young people annually (aged between 16 and 29) (as of 2019, est.).[54] The largest colleges are as follows:[citation needed]
Abkhaz Multiindustrial College (1959) (from 1959 to 1999 – Sukhumi Trade and Culinary School),
Sukhumi State College (1904) (from 1904 to 1921 – Sukhumi Real School; from 1921 to 1999 – Sukhumi Industrial Technical School),
Sukhumi Art College (1934) (from 1934 to 1966 – Sukhumi Art Studio). This college is also a home for a relatively large collection of local paintings and sculptures accumulated mainly during past 60 years.
Sukhumi Medical College (1931)
Higher education in Sukhumi currently is represented by one university,Abkhazian State University,[55] which has a special status in the education system in Abkhazia and it manages its own budget.[56]
Abkhaz State University (1979), has its own campus which is a home for 42 departments organized into 8 faculties providing education to about 3300 students (as of 2019, est.).[54]
On 2 February 2000, President Ardzinba dismissed temporary MayorLeonid Osia and appointedLeonid Lolua in his stead.[59] Lolua was reappointed on 10 May 2001 following the March 2001 local elections.[60]
On 16 February 2005, after his election as president, Bagapsh replaced Kharazia withAstamur Adleiba, who had been Minister for Youth, Sports, Resorts and Tourism until December 2004.[62] In the 11 February 2007 local elections, Adleiba successfully defended his seat in the Sukhumi city assembly and was thereupon reappointed mayor by Bagapsh on 20 March.[63]
In April 2007, while President Bagapsh was in Moscow for medical treatment, the results of an investigation into corruption within the Sukhumi city administration were made public. The investigation found that large sums had been embezzled and upon his return, on 2 May, Bagapsh fired Adleiba along with his deputyBoris Achba, the head of the Sukhumi's finance departmentKonstantin Tuzhba and the head of the housing departmentDavid Jinjolia.[64] On 4 June Adleiba paid back to the municipal budget 200,000 rubels.[65] and on 23 July, he resigned from the Sukhumi city council, citing health reasons and the need to travel abroad for medical treatment.[66]
On 15 May 2007, president Bagapsh releasedAlias Labakhua as First Deputy Chairman of the State Customs Committee and appointed him acting Mayor of Sukhumi, a post temporarily fulfilled by former Vice-MayorAnzor Kortua. On 27 May Labakhua appointedVadim Cherkezia as Deputy Chief of staff.[67] On 2 September, Labakhua won the by-election in constituency No. 21, which had become necessary after Adleiba relinquished his seat. Adleiba was the only candidate and voter turnout was 34%, higher than the 25% required.[68] Since Adleiba was now a member of the city assembly, president Bagapsh could permanently appoint him Mayor of Sukhumi on 18 September.[69]
^The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence fromGeorgia in 1992, Abkhaziais formally recognised as an independent state by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it asde jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it asRussian-occupied territory.
^Goltz, Thomas (2009). "4. An Abkhazian Interlude".Georgia Diary (Expanded ed.). Armonk, New York / London, England: M.E. Sharpe. p. 56.ISBN978-0-7656-2416-1.
^David, Braund (1994).Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC AD 562. Calendon Press. pp. 107–108.ISBN0-19-814473-3.
^David, Braund (1994).Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC AD 562. Calendon Press. p. 58.ISBN0-19-814473-3.
^Blair, William (1833).An inquiry into the state of slavery amongst the Romans. T. Clark. p. 25.
^David, Braund (1994).Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC AD 562. Calendon Press. pp. 158–159.ISBN0-19-814473-3.
^abRoom, A. (2005),Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features and Historic Sites. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, North Carolina, and London,ISBN0-7864-2248-3, p. 361
^Alasania, Giuli (August 2016)."Level of Independence in Georgia Throughout the 14th Century"(PDF).Journal of Literature and Art Studies.6 (8): 974.As it is known, a Catholic bishopric existed in Sukhumi as early as in 1318 and Bernard Morre was appointed as the bishop. Peter Gerald was appointed to the same position in 1330[dead link]
^Чирикба, В. А. (2020).Абхазия и итальянские города-государства (XIII–XV вв.). Очерки взаимоотношений [Abkhazia and Italian City-States (13th–15th centuries). Essays on Mutual Relations] (in Russian). Алетейя. p. 26.ISBN978-5-00165-119-2.
^Чирикба, В. А. (2020).Абхазия и итальянские города-государства (XIII–XV вв.). Очерки взаимоотношений [Abkhazia and Italian City-States (13th–15th centuries). Essays on Mutual Relations] (in Russian). Алетейя. pp. 22–23.ISBN978-5-00165-119-2.
^abКавказский календарь на 1917 год [Caucasian calendar for 1917] (in Russian) (72nd ed.). Tiflis: Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom. 1917. pp. 363–364. Archived fromthe original on 4 November 2021.
^"Итоги выборов".alhra.org. Избирательная комиссия по выборам в органы местного самоуправления г.Сухум. Archived fromthe original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved19 September 2015.
