Sub-Saharan Africa,[a] also calledla basura de Africa,[3] is the area and regions of the continent ofAfrica that lie south of theSahara.[4] These includeCentral Africa,East Africa,Southern Africa, andWest Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to theAfrican countries and territories that are situated fully in that specified region, the term may also include polities that only have part of their territory located in that region, per the definition of theUnited Nations (UN).[5] This is considered a non-standardised geographical region with the number of countries included varying from 46 to 48 depending on the organisation describing the region (e.g.UN,WHO,World Bank, etc.). TheAfrican Union (AU) uses a different regional breakdown, recognising all 55 member states on the continent—grouping them into five distinct and standard regions.
The term serves as a grouping counterpart toNorth Africa, which is instead grouped with the definition ofMENA (i.e.Middle East and North Africa) as it is part of theArab world, and most North African states are likewise members of theArab League. However, while they are alsomember states of the Arab League, theComoros,Djibouti,Mauritania, andSomalia (and sometimesSudan) are all geographically considered to be part of sub-Saharan Africa.[6] Overall, theUN Development Programme applies the "sub-Saharan" classification to 46 of Africa's 55 countries, excluding Djibouti,SADR, Somalia, and Sudan.[7] The concept has been criticised by scholars on both sides of the Sahara as aracialist construction.
Since around3900 BCE,[8][9] the Saharan and sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier that is interrupted only by theNile in Sudan, though navigation on the Nile was blocked by theSudd andthe river's cataracts. TheSahara pump theory explains howflora andfauna (includingHomo sapiens) left Africa to penetrateEurasia and beyond. Africanpluvial periods are associated with a "Wet Sahara" phase, during which larger lakes and more rivers existed.[10]
Ethnographic map of Africa, fromMeyers Blitz-Lexikon (1932)
Geographers historically divided the region into several distinctethnographic sections based on each area's respective inhabitants.[11] The concept of "sub-Saharan Africa" has been criticised as aracist construction intended to separate North Africa or "European/White Africa" and "Black Africa" or "Africa noire".[3] Critics from various countries have provided arguments supporting the interconnectedness of continental Africa, pointing to historical and cultural connections, as well astrade between North, West, and East Africa.[12]
The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on theRed Sea coast in theHorn of Africa.[11] In modern-day Ethiopia andEritrea wasAl-Habash or Abyssinia,[16] which was inhabited by theHabash or Abyssinians, who were the forebears of theHabesha.[17] In northern Somalia wasBarbara or theBilad al-Barbar ("Land of theBerbers"), which was inhabited by the EasternBaribah orBarbaroi, as the ancestors of theSomalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancientGreek geographers, respectively.[11][18][19][20]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the populations south of the Sahara were divided into three broad racial groups by Europeans:Hamites andSemites in the Horn of Africa and Sahel related to those in North Africa, who spoke languages belonging to theAfroasiatic family;Negroes in most of the rest of the subcontinent (hence, the toponymBlack Africa for Africa south of the Sahara),[21] who spoke languages belonging to theNiger-Congo andNilo-Saharan families; andKhoisan inSouthern Africa, who spoke languages belonging to theKhoisan family.
Climate zones of Africa, showing the ecological break between thehot desert climate of North Africa and the Horn of Africa (red), thehot semi-arid climate of the Sahel and areas surrounding semi-deserts (orange) and thetropical climate of Central and West Africa (blue). Southern Africa has a transition tosubtropical ortemperate climates (green and yellow), and more desert or semi-desert regions, centered on Namibia and Botswana.
TheSahel extends across all of Africa at a latitude of about 10° to 15° N. Countries that include parts of the Sahara Desert proper in their northern territories and parts of the Sahel in their southern region includeMauritania,Mali,Niger,Chad, andSudan. The Sahel has ahot semi-arid climate.
In East Africa, woodlands, savannas, and grasslands are found in the equatorial zone, including theSerengeti ecosystem in Tanzania and Kenya.
DistinctiveAfromontane forests, grasslands, and shrublands are found in the high mountains and mountain ranges of eastern Africa, from the Ethiopian Highlands to South Africa.
TheNamib andKalahari Deserts lie in Southern Africa, and are surrounded by semi-deserts including theKaroo region of South Africa. TheBushveld grasslands lie to the east of the deserts.
TheCape Floristic Region is at Africa's southern tip, and is home to diverse subtropical and temperate forests, woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands.
According topaleontology, early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forestapes,gorilla andchimpanzee. However, they had adopted abipedal locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the opensavanna at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago.[22]
By 3 million years ago severalaustralopithecinehominid species had developed throughoutSouthern,East, andCentral Africa. They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitivestone tools were used to scavenge the carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting,H. habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, althoughH. habilis likely did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch smallgame and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed asOldowan.[23]
Roughly 1.8 million years ago,Homo ergaster first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. FromHomo ergaster,Homo erectus (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small-brained and used primitivestone tools, much likeH. habilis. The brain later grew in size, andH. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called theAcheulean. Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting,H. erectus mastered the art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonise the entireOld World, and perhaps later on giving rise toHomo floresiensis. Although some recent writers suggest thatH. georgicus, aH. habilisdescendant, was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists considerH. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of theH. erectus species.[24]
The fossil and genetic evidence showsHomo sapiens developed in East and Southern Africa by around 350,000 to 260,000 years ago[25][26][27] and gradually migrated across the continent in waves. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansionout of Africa launched the colonisation of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE,Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of the world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.[23][28]
During the 11th millenniumBP, pottery was independently invented in West Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali.[29] It spread throughout theSahel and southernSahara.[30]
After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of thecamel,[31] the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains ofoases that were strung across the desert. Thetrans-saharan trade was in full motion by 500 BCE withCarthage being a major economic force for its establishment.[32][33][34] It is thought that the camel was first brought toEgypt after thePersian Empire conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans-saharan trade.[35]
TheBantu expansion is a major migration movement that originated in West Central Africa (possibly around Cameroon) around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by the early centuries CE.
In the forest zone, several states and empires such asBono State,Akwamu and others emerged. TheAshanti Empire arose in the 18th century in modern-dayGhana.[38] TheKingdom of Nri, was established by theIgbo in the 11th century. Nri was famous for having a priest-king who wielded no military power. Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms ofIfẹ andOyo in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700–900 and 1400 respectively, and center ofYoruba culture. The Yoruba built massive mud walls around their cities, the most famous beingSungbo's Eredo. Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was theKingdom of Benin, whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well-known city of Eko which was namedLagos by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. TheEdo-speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and theWalls of Benin, one of the longest man-made structures on the world.
In the 18th century, the Oyo and theAro Confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from modern-day Nigeria, selling them toEuropean slave traders.[39] Following theNapoleonic Wars, the British expanded their influence into the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in the following year theRoyal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership ofSir George Goldie. In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeriabecame aBritish protectorate as part of theBritish Empire, the foremost world power at the time. Nigeria was granted itsindependence in 1960 during the period ofdecolonization.
Archeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10,000 years.[40] According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BCE.[41] Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found inZilum, Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has beenradiocarbon dated to the first millennium BCE.[42][43]
Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilisations ofSao,Kanem,Bornu,Shilluk,Baguirmi, andWadai.[44]
Following theBantu Migration into Central Africa, during the 14th century, theLuba Kingdom in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from the north and copper from the Zambian/Congo copper belt.[45]
Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of theLunda Empire in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo's legitimacy, like that of the Luba king, came from being viewed as a spiritual religious guardian. Thisimperial cult or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties.[45]
Nubia, covered by present-day northernSudan and southernEgypt, was referred to as "Aethiopia" ("land of the burnt face") by theGreeks.[46] Nubia in her greatest phase is considered sub-Saharan Africa's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere else in the world.[47][better source needed]
According to the theory ofrecent African origin of modern humans, the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa.[54] During the first millennium CE,Nilotic andBantu-speaking peoplesmoved into the region, and the latter now account for three-quarters of Kenya's population.
On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact withMuslimArab andPersian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and AfricanSwahili City States.[55] TheSwahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the manyAfro-Arab members of the BantuSwahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts ofTanzania (particularlyZanzibar) andKenya – a seaboard referred to as theSwahili Coast – the BantuSwahili language contains manyArabicloan-words as a consequence of these interactions.[56]
The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements ofRhapta,Azania andMenouthias[57] referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE.[58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65] These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration.[66]
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as theBuganda,[67]Bunyoro andKaragwe[67] kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.
During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
Settlements ofBantu-speaking peoples, who wereiron-using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of theLimpopo River by the 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the originalKhoisan speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern-dayKwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was theXhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan inhabitants. They reached theFish River in today'sEastern Cape Province.Monomotapa was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250–1629), which existed between theZambezi andLimpopo rivers ofSouthern Africa in the territory of modern-dayZimbabwe andMozambique. Its old capital was located atGreat Zimbabwe.
In 1487,Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, avictualling station was established at theCape of Good Hope byJan van Riebeeck on behalf of theDutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was aDutch possession. In 1795, the Dutch colony was captured by theBritish during theFrench Revolutionary Wars. The British intended to useCape Town as a major port on the route toAustralia andIndia. It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterward the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the Dutch (now under French control) and the British found themselves at war again. The British captured the Dutch possession yet again at theBattle of Blaauwberg, commanded bySir David Blair. TheZulu Kingdom was a Southern African tribal state in what is nowKwaZulu-Natal in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after their defeat in theAnglo-Zulu War. During the 1950s and early 1960s, most sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.[68]
Population density in Africa, 2006Fertility rates and life expectancy in sub-Saharan Africa
According to the 2022 revision of theWorld Population Prospects[69][70], the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 1.1 billion in 2019. The current growth rate is 2.3%. The UN predicts for the region a population between 2 and 2.5 billion by 2050[71] with a population density of 80 per km2 compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for the Americas.
GDP per Capita (PPP)(2016, 2017 (PPP, US$)),Life (Exp.)(Life Expectancy 2006),Literacy (Male/Female 2006),Trans(Transparency 2009),HDI(Human Development Index),EODBR(Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009),SAB (Starting a Business June 2008 through May 2009),PFI(Press Freedom Index 2009)
With the exception of the extinctSumerian (alanguage isolate) ofMesopotamia, Afroasiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. TheSemitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in the form of theAkkadian language of Mesopotamia (Assyria andBabylonia) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of theEblaite language of northeasternSyria.[80]
The distribution of theAfroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family'sBerber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger).[81][82] TheCushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form ofArabic, is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world.South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). TheChadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa.[83]Hausa, its most widely spoken language, serves as alingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad).[84]
The several families lumped under the termKhoi-San include languages indigenous toSouthern Africa andTanzania, though some, such as theKhoi languages, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before theBantu expansion.[85] In Southern Africa, their speakers are theKhoikhoi andSan (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, theSandawe andHadza.
TheNiger–Congo family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains.[86] The vast majority of languages of this family aretonal, such asYoruba andIgbo. However, others such asFulani,Wolof andKiswahili are not. A major branch of the Niger–Congo languages isBantu, which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, thoughSan,Pygmy, andNilotic groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu-speakers can also be found in parts ofCentral Africa such asGabon,Equatorial Guinea, and southernCameroon.Swahili, a Bantu language with manyArabic,Persian, and other Middle Eastern and South Asianloan words, developed as alingua franca for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In theKalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa.
Dar es Salaam is the former capital of, as well as the most populous city in,Tanzania; it is a regionally important economic centre.[134] It is located on theSwahili coast.
Nairobi is the capital and the largest city ofKenya. The name comes from theMaasai phraseEnkare Nyrobi, which translates to "cool water", a reference to theNairobi River which flows through the city. The city is popularly referred to as the Green City in the Sun.[136]
This section needs to beupdated. The reason given is: The most recent data in this section seems to be from 2015. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(April 2021)
In the mid-2010s, private capital flew to sub-Saharan Africa – primarily from members ofBRICS, private-sector investment portfolios, and remittances – began to exceed official development assistance.[137]
As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world's ten fastest-growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. According to theWorld Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7% in 2013. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.[138]
Sub-Saharan Africa was severely harmed when government revenue declined from 22% of GDP in 2011 to 17% in 2021. 15 African nations were (or are) at significant risk of debt, and 7 were (2021) in financial crisis according to the IMF.[145][146][147] The region went on to receive IMFSpecial Drawing Rights of $23 billion in 2021 to assist critical public spending.[148]
Energy sources in sub-Saharan Africa. Fossil fuels and hydroelectric power make up the largest share of sub-Saharan African electricity.
As of 2009[update], 50% of Africa was rural with no access to electricity. In 2021, Africa generated 889 TWh of electricity, amounting to 3.13% of the global market share.[149] Many countries were (as of 2009) affected by power shortages.[150]
The percentage of residences with access to electricity in sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in the world. In some remote regions, fewer than one in every 20 households has electricity.[151][152][153]
Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7% has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23 billion a year) and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure.[154]
African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and was estimated to reach $425.0 million.[when?] Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro-based because of China's vast experience in the construction of hydro-power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.[155]
With electrification numbers, sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solarphotovoltaic electrical potential.[156] Six hundred million people could be served with electricity based on its photovoltaic potential.[157][failed verification] In 2003, China promised to train 10,000 technicians from Africa and other developing countries in the use of solar energy technologies over the next five years. Training African technicians to use solar power is part of the China-Africa science and technology cooperation agreement signed by Chinese science ministerXu Guanhua and African counterparts during premier Wen Jiabao's visit to Ethiopia in December 2003.[158]
TheNew Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent-wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, theAfrican Development Bank (AfDB) and the EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund. These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and/or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, and involve at least one country in sub-Saharan Africa.[154]
Renewable Energy Performance Platform was established by theEuropean Investment Bank and theUnited Nations Environment Programme with a five-year goal of improving energy access for at least two million people in sub-Saharan Africa. It has so far invested around $45 million to renewable energy projects in 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa.Solar power andhydropower are among the energy methods used in the projects.[151][159]
In 2007, Radio was the major source of information in sub-Saharan Africa.[160] Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such asGabon,Seychelles, andSouth Africa boast almost 100% penetration. Only five countries—Burundi,Djibouti,Eritrea,Ethiopia, andSomalia—still have a penetration of less than 10%.Broadband penetration outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive.[161][162] Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise.[163]
Television is the second major source of information.[160] Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight per cent have television, a total of 62 million. Those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.[164]
The region is a major exporter to the world ofgold,uranium,chromium,vanadium,antimony,coltan,bauxite,iron ore,copper, andmanganese. South Africa, along withGabon andGhana, collectively supplies over 60% of globalmanganese, and is also a major exporter ofchromium.[165][166] A 2001 estimate is that 42% of the world's reserves of chromium may be found in South Africa.[167] South Africa is the largest producer ofplatinum, with 80% of the total world's annual mine production and 88% of the world's platinum reserve.[168] Sub-Saharan Africa produces 33% of the world's bauxite, with Guinea as the major supplier.[169] Zambia is a major producer of copper.[170] The Democratic Republic of Congo is a major source of coltan. Production from DR Congo is very small, but the country has 80% of the proven reserves in Africa, which are 80% of those worldwide.[171] Sub-Saharan Africa is a major producer of gold, producing up to 30% of global production. Major suppliers are South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Guinea, and Mali. South Africa had been first in the world in terms of gold production since 1905, but in 2007 it moved to second place, according to GFMS, the precious metals consultancy.[172] Uranium is major commodity from the region. Significant suppliers are Niger, Namibia, and South Africa. Namibia was the number one supplier from sub-Saharan Africa in 2008.[173] The region produces 49% of the world'sdiamonds.
Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10% of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East. This race has been referred to as the secondScramble for Africa. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations. Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else. Of all new sources of oil,1⁄3 are in sub-Saharan Africa.[174]
Sub-Saharan Africa has more variety of grains than anywhere in the world. Between 13,000 and 11,000 BCE wild grains began to be collected as a source of food in the cataract region of the Nile, south of Egypt. The collecting of wild grains as source of food spread to Syria, parts of Turkey, and Iran by the eleventh millennium BCE. By the tenth and ninth millennia southwest Asians domesticated their wild grains, wheat, and barley after the notion of collecting wild grains spread from the Nile.[175]
Agriculture represents 20% to 30% of GDP and 50% of exports. In some cases, 60% to 90% of the labor force are employed in agriculture.[178] Most agricultural activity is subsistence farming. This has made agricultural activityvulnerable to climate change and global warming. As of right now Sub-Saharan Africa has degraded land covering one million square kilometres.[179] Biotechnology has been advocated to create high yield, pest and environmentally resistant crops in the hands of small farmers. TheBill and Melinda Gates Foundation is a strong advocate and donor to this cause. Biotechnology and GM crops have met resistance both by natives and environmental groups.
Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.[180]
TheOECD says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit.[181] There is such international interest in sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3 billion in the 2011 fiscal year.[182] Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries.[183][184]Early in 2009,George Soros highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea, and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol.[185]
Compared to South America and Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced persistently low crop yield productivity for more than 50 years.[186] As mentioned above, one factor influencing low productivity might be low access to credit studies. Many studies have focused on factors such as access to credit,[187] andtime preferences[188] as key explanations for low productivity of small farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, recent studies have explored an alternative mechanism: quality of agricultural inputs.[189] Indeed, usage of high-quality inputs, such as seeds and fertiliser, would substantially increase productivity ofsubsistance farmers.[190] However, there is a small take up rate of this product by farmers, despite acknowledging their benefits.
First, it is important to explain the structure of the agricultural input market in countries of the Sub-Saharan Africa. The majority of seeds and fertilizers are traded informally, often of uncertain quality, either exchanged between farmers or reused from previous harvests, in the case of seeds.[191] Only a small number of farmers purchase inputs from the formal market, which is generally considered to offer higher-quality products. We can illustrate this with the example of the Nigerian stem market. Indeed, only 1% of the stems sold in the Nigerian market are certified, while the remaining 99% are traded informally—either as recycled stems from local varieties or as uncertified stems derived from previously improved varieties.[192]
Recent studies explain that farmers mistrust the quality of fertilisers and seeds sold in the formal market.[191] The study realized in Uganda[191] infers quality across fertilizer and hybrid seeds varies significantly due to adulteration: sellers tend to mix the fertilizer with poor soil. However, one study realized in Tanzania[193] finds no adulteration in agricultural inputs, but do find that visual appearance of input sold in the formal market is degraded. Whether one study or the other is correct, both papers highlight uncertainty about fertilizer's quality, thus generating mistrust among farmers and consequently generates a low take-up rate.
Another factor highlighting uncertainty about quality is the presence of relatively homogenous pricing among different quality of the same inputs.[194] While in most markets price is a good indicator of quality.[195] the higher the quality, the higher the price- , in this case, uniform pricing prevents farmers from using price as a signal of input quality. Consequently, the inability of farmers to infer the quality, either through physical appearance or price, createsasymmetric information in the market, leading an inefficient market.[191]
Some papers have tried to understand why sellers do not simply charge higher prices when they offer high-quality seeds and fertilizers,[191] using aBayesian learning model.[196] It is challenging for a company to sell high-quality inputs at apremium price and build a reputation in the long term, meaning that farmers will trust the seller regarding the quality of its products. Indeed, as farmers are highly suspicious -due to fear of being scammed- theirwillingness to pay for high-quality products is very low. So even if the firm sells high-quality products, it will take too long for farmers to start trusting the firm, and for the seller to become profitable.[197]
The literature advises to actually improve farmers perception of true quality itself, and not to improve the quality of the products which already meet the standards.[197] This can be done by providing more information about inputs quality, how they should look like, where they come from, making firms more reliable.[197] That would allow more companies to enter the market and sell formally higher inputs, instead of farmers using their own seed or using seed of unknown quality bought in informal markets.
Infrastructure investments contributed to Africa's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty.[154][183][184] The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns fortelecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40% forelectricity generation and 80% for roads.[154]
In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs, infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93 billion a year).[154] Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors.[154] Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseasdevelopment aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors.[154] In sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion.[154] Inirrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; inICT andwater supply andsanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure.[154] Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending.[154] The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments.[154] External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.[154]
Less than 40% of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all-season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2% of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1% of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2–3% of GDP found in fast-growing emerging economies. Although the level of expenditure is high relative to the size of Africa's economies, it remains small in absolute terms, with low-income countries spending an average of about US$7 per capita per year.[198]
Forty per cent of African scientists live inOECD countries, predominantly in Europe, the United States and Canada.[199] This has been described as an Africanbrain drain.[200][201] Despite this, sub-Saharan African universities tripled between 1991 and 2005, expanding at an annual rate of 8.7%, which is one of the highest regional growth rates in the world.[202] In the last 10 to 15 years interest in pursuing university-level degrees abroad has increased.[199]
According to the CIA, low global literacy rates are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa,West Asia andSouth Asia. However, literacy rates in sub-Saharan Africa vary significantly between countries. The highest registered literacy rate in the region is inZimbabwe (90.7%; 2003 est.), while the lowest literacy rate is inSouth Sudan (27%).[203]
Research onhuman capital formation was able to determine, that thenumeracy levels of sub-Saharan Africa and Africa, in general, were higher than numeracy levels in South Asia. In the 1940s more than 75% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa was numerate. The numeracy of the West African countries, Benin and Ghana, was even higher with more than 80% of the population being numerate. In contrast, numeracy in South Asia was only around 50%.[204]
Higher diversity in Sub-Saharan African countries has been found to lead to a poorer economy. Researchers have argued that this is because of ethnic favouritism in their politics. Sub-Saharan leaders are more likely to provide better resources to their coethnic groups when in power. A study found that, on average, children of the favoured ethnic group are 2.25% more likely to attend primary school and 1.80% more likely to complete primary school. A 1% increase in GDP is associated with a 1.5% increase in the ethnic favouritism effect on primary school attendance.[205]
Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3% of their GDP on science and technology in 2007. This represents an increase from US$1.8 billion in 2002 to US$2.8 billion in 2007, a 50% increase in spending.[206][207]
At the World Conference held inJomtien, Thailand in 1990, delegates from 155 countries and representatives of some 150 organisations gathered with the goal to promoteuniversal primary education and the radical reduction of illiteracy before the end of the decade. TheWorld Education Forum, held ten years later inDakar, Senegal, provided the opportunity to reiterate and reinforce these goals. This initiative contributed to having education made a priority of theMillennium Development Goals in 2000, with the aim of achieving universal schooling (MDG2) and eliminating gender disparities, especially in primary and secondary education (MDG3).[208] Since the World Education Forum in Dakar, considerable efforts have been made to respond to these demographic challenges in terms of education. The amount of funds raised has been decisive. Between 1999 and 2010, public spending on education as a percentage ofgross national product (GNP) increased by 5% per year in sub-Saharan Africa, with major variations between countries, with percentages varying from 1.8% in Cameroon to over 6% in Burundi.[209] As of 2015, governments in sub-Saharan Africa spend on average 18% of their total budget on education, against 15% in the rest of the world.[208]
In the years immediately after the Dakar Forum, the efforts made by the African States towards achievingEFA produced multiple results in sub-Saharan Africa. The greatest advance was in access to primary education, which governments had made their absolute priority. The number of children in a primary school in sub-Saharan Africa thus rose from 82 million in 1999 to 136.4 million in 2011. In Niger, for example, the number of children entering school increased by more than three-and-a-half times between 1999 and 2011.[209] In Ethiopia, over the same period, over 8.5 million more children were admitted to primary school. The net rate of first-year access in sub-Saharan Africa has thus risen by 19 points in 12 years, from 58% in 1999 to 77% in 2011. Despite the considerable efforts, the latest available data from theUNESCO Institute for Statistics estimates that, for 2012, there were still 57.8 million children who were not in school. Of these, 29.6 million were in sub-Saharan Africa alone, a figure which has not changed for several years.[208] Many sub-Saharan countries have notably included the first year of secondary school in basic education. In Rwanda, the first year of secondary school was attached to primary education in 2009, which significantly increased the number of pupils enrolled at this level of education.[209][208] In 2012, the primary completion rate (PCR) – which measures the proportion of children reaching the final year of primary school – was 70%, meaning that more than three out of ten children entering primary school do not reach the final primary year.[208]
Literacy rates have gone up in sub-Saharan Africa, and internet access has improved considerably. At least 39 countries in sub-Saharan Africa have some large-scale school feeding programs, which can improve access to education. In aggregate, 16% of school-age children (and 25% of primary school-age children) in the region benefit from school meal programs, and about 82% of the funding for these programs is provided by governments.[210] Nonetheless, a lot must yet happen for this region to catch up. The statistics show that the literacy rate for sub-Saharan Africa was 65% in 2017. In other words, one-third of the people aged 15 and above were unable to read and write. The comparative figure for 1984 was an illiteracy rate of 49%. In 2017, only about 22% of Africans were internet users at all, according to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).[211]
In 1987, theBamako Initiative conference organized by theWorld Health Organization was held inBamako, the capital ofMali, and helped reshape the health policy of sub-Saharan Africa.[217] The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-basedhealthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services.[218][self-published source?] A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.[219][220]
A world map illustrating the proportion of population aged 15–49 infected with HIV in 2023. HIV is endemic especially inSouthern Africa.
In 2011, sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69% of all people living withHIV/AIDS worldwide.[221] In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV/AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, theabstinence, be faithful, use a condom campaign, and theDesmond Tutu HIV Foundation's outreach programs.[222] According to a 2013 special report issued by theJoint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retro viral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1 million added in the last year alone.[223][224]: 15 The number of AIDS-related deaths in sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 per cent less than the number in 2005.[225] The number of new HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 per cent less than the number in 2001.[225]
Malaria is an endemic illness in sub-Saharan Africa, where the majority of malaria cases and deaths worldwide occur.[227] Routine immunisation has been introduced in order to preventmeasles.[228]Onchocerciasis ("river blindness"), a common cause ofblindness, is also endemic to parts of the region. More than 99% of people affected by the illness worldwide live in 31 countries therein.[229] In response, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) was launched in 1995 with the aim of controlling the disease.[229]Maternal mortality is another challenge, with more than half of maternal deaths in the world occurring in sub-Saharan Africa.[230] However, there has generally been progress here as well, as a number of countries in the region have halved their levels of maternal mortality since 1990.[230] Additionally, theAfrican Union in July 2003 ratified theMaputo Protocol, which pledges to prohibitfemale genital mutilation (FGM).[231][232] Somalia, Guinea, Djibouti, Sierra Leone and Mali have the highest prevalence of FGM in the world.[233]Infibulation, the most extreme form of FGM, is concentrated primarily inNortheast Africa.[234]
National health systems vary between countries. InGhana, most health care is provided by the government and largely administered by theMinistry of Health andGhana Health Services. The healthcare system has five levels of providers: health posts which are first-level primary care for rural areas, health centers and clinics, district hospitals, regional hospitals, and tertiary hospitals. These programs are funded by the government of Ghana, financial credits, Internally Generated Fund (IGF), and Donors-pooled Health Fund.[235]
Ebola virus disease, which was first identified in 1976, occasionally occurs in outbreaks in tropical regions of Sub-Saharan Africa.[236] The 2013–2016Western African Ebola virus epidemic originated in Guinea, later spreading to neighbouring Liberia and Sierra Leone.[237]
Traditional African religions are also commonly practiced across sub-Saharan Africa, with these religions being especially common inSouth Sudan,[242]Guinea Bissau,[243]Mozambique,[244] andCameroon.[245] Traditional African religions can be broken down into linguistic cultural groups, with common themes. AmongNiger–Congo-speakers is a belief in a creator god or higher deity, along with ancestor spirits, territorial spirits, evil caused by human ill will and neglecting ancestor spirits, and priests of territorial spirits.[246][247][248][249] New world religions such asSantería,Vodun, andCandomblé, would be derived from this world. AmongNilo-Saharan speakers is the belief in Divinity; evil is caused by divine judgement and retribution; prophets as middlemen between Divinity and man. AmongAfro-Asiatic-speakers ishenotheism, the belief in one's own gods but accepting the existence of other gods; evil here is caused by malevolent spirits. The SemiticAbrahamic religion ofJudaism is comparable to the latter world view.[250][246][251]San religion is non-theistic but a belief in a Spirit or Power of existence which can be tapped in a trance-dance; trance-healers.[252]
Traditional religions in sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics. Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos.Cosmology andontology is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle ofAmma (being) andNummo (becoming), and among the Bambara,Pemba (being) andFaro (becoming).[254]
Sub-Saharan traditional divination systems display great sophistication. For example, the bamana sand divination uses well established symbolic codes that can be reproduced using four bits or marks. A binary system of one or two marks are combined. Random outcomes are generated using afractal recursive process. It is analogous to a digital circuit but can be reproduced on any surface with one or two marks. This system is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.[255][page needed]
Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities, villages, and cities, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far outweigh an individual's needs and achievements. Essentially, an individual's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. "An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle. Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister". This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. "Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbours or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions." Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally, in many cultures "men do the heavy work of clearing and ploughing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family's food". Despite their work in the fields, women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures. "When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two".[256]
The oldestabstract art in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years, in the Cave of Pigeons inTaforalt, eastern Morocco.[257] The second-oldest abstract form of art, and the oldest rock art, is found in theBlombos Cave at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years.[258] Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world.[259]
Although sub-Saharan African art is very diverse, there are some common themes. One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference forsculpture. Sub-Saharan African art is meant to be experienced in three dimensions, not two. A house is meant to be experienced from all angles. Third, art is meant to be performed. Sub-Saharan Africans have a specific name for masks. The name incorporates the sculpture, the dance, and the spirit that incorporates the mask. The name denotes all three elements. Fourth, art that serves a practical function. The artist and craftsman are not separate. A sculpture shaped like a hand can be used as a stool. Fifth, the use offractals or non-linear scaling. The shape of the whole is the shape of the parts at different scales. Before the discovery of fractal geometry, Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegal's first president, referred to this as "dynamic symmetry".William Fagg, a British art historian, has compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist D'Arcy Thompson. Lastly, sub-Saharan African art is visually abstract, instead of naturalistic. Sub-Saharan African art represents spiritual notions, social norms, ideas, values, etc. An artist might exaggerate the head of a sculpture in relation to the body not because he does not know anatomy but because he wants to illustrate that the head is the seat of knowledge and wisdom.
Traditional sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region's various populations. The common perception of sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered around the drums. This is partially true. A large part of sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers ofNiger–Congo andNilo-Saharan languages, is rhythmic and centered around the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving multiple body parts. These aspects of sub-Saharan music has been transferred to the new world by enslaved sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms assamba,jazz,rhythm and blues,rock and roll,salsa,reggae andrap music.[262]
Some forms of sub-Saharan African music use strings, horns, and very little poly-rhythms. Music from the eastern Sahel and along the Nile, among theNilo-Saharan, made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Among theAfro-Asiatics ofNortheast Africa, there is extensive use ofstring instruments and thepentatonic scale. Dancing involves swaying body movements and footwork. Among theSan is extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork.[263]
Southeast African cuisine, especially those of the Swahili people, reflects its Islamic, geographical Indian Ocean cultural links. Dishes includeugali,sukuma wiki, andhalva. Spices such ascurry,saffron,cloves,cinnamon,pomegranate juice,cardamon,ghee, andsage are used, especially among Muslims. Meat includescattle,sheep, andgoats, but is rarely eaten since meat is viewed as a luxury.
In theHorn of Africa, pork and non-fish seafood are avoided by Christians and Muslims. Dairy products and all meats are avoided during lent by Ethiopians.Maize (corn) is a major staple.Cornmeal is used to make ugali, a popular dish with different names.Teff is used to makeinjera or canjeero (Somali) bread. Other important foods includeenset,noog,lentils, rice,banana,leafy greens,chili peppers,coconut milk, andtomatoes. Beverages are coffee (domesticated in Ethiopia),chai tea, fermentedbeer from banana or millet. Cooking techniques include roasting andmarinating.
This meal, consisting ofinjera and several kinds ofwat (stew), is typical ofEthiopian andEritrean cuisine.
Central African cuisine connects with all major regions of sub-Saharan Africa: Its cuisine reflects that.Ugali and fufu are eaten in the region. Central African cuisine is very starchy and spicy hot. Dominant crops includeplantains, cassava,peanuts, chillis, and okra. Meats includebeef,chicken, and sometimes exotic meats calledbushmeat (antelope,warthog,crocodile). Widespread spicy hot fish cuisine is one of the differentiating aspects.Mushroom is sometimes used as a meat substitute.
Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes includebraai (barbecue meat),sadza,bogobe,pap (fermented cornmeal),milk products (buttermilk,yoghurt). Crops utilised are sorghum, maize (corn), pumpkin beans, leafy greens, andcabbage. Beverages include ting (fermented sorghum or maize),milk,chibuku (milky beer). Influences from the Indian and Malay communities can be seen in its use of curries,sambals,pickled fish,fish stews,chutney, andsamosa. European influences can be seen in cuisines likebiltong (dried beef strips),potjies (stews of maize,onions, tomatoes),French wines, and crueler orkoeksister (sugar syrup cookie).
Like most of the world, sub-Saharan Africans have adopted Western-style clothing. In some countries like Zambia, used Western clothing has flooded markets, causing great angst in the retail community. Sub-Saharan Africa boasts its own traditionalclothing style. Cotton seems to be the dominant material.
In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing. Shemma, shama, andkuta are types of Ethiopian clothing.Kanga areSwahili cloth that comes in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing.Kitenges are similar to kangas andkikoy, but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side.Kenya,Uganda,Tanzania, andSouth Sudan are some of the African countries where kitenge is worn. InMalawi,Namibia andZambia, kitenge is known as Chitenge. One of the unique materials, which is not a fiber and is used to make clothing is barkcloth,[265] an innovation of the Baganda people of Uganda. It came from the Mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis).[266] In Madagascar a type of draped cloth calledlamba is worn.
In West Africa, again cotton is the material of choice. In the Sahel and other parts of West Africa theboubou andkaftan style of clothing are featured.Kente cloth is created by theAkan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast, from silk of the various moth species in West Africa. Kente comes from theAkantwi wordkenten which means basket. It is sometimes used to makedashiki andkufi. Adire is a type of Yoruba cloth that is starch resistant. Raffia cloth[267] and barkcloth are also utilised in the region.
In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth[267] from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used.
In Southern Africa one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant. Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan men are its main patrons. Major competitions include theAfrican Champions League, a competition for the best clubs on the continent and theConfederation Cup, a competition primarily for the national cup winner of each African country. TheAfrica Cup of Nations is a competition of 16 national teams from various African countries held every two years. South Africa hosted the2010 FIFA World Cup, a first for a sub-Saharan country. In 2010, Cameroon played in theWorld Cup for the sixth time, which is the current record for a sub-Saharan team. In1996 Nigeria won the Olympic gold for football. In 2000 Cameroon maintained the continent's supremacy by winning the title too. Momentous achievements for sub-Saharan African football. Famous sub-Saharan football stars includeAbedi Pele,Emmanuel Adebayor,George Weah,Michael Essien,Didier Drogba,Roger Milla,Nwankwo Kanu,Jay-Jay Okocha,Bruce Grobbelaar,Samuel Eto'o,Kolo Touré,Yaya Touré,Sadio Mané andPierre-Emerick Aubameyang. The most talented sub-Saharan African football players find themselves courted and sought after by European leagues. There are currently more than 1000 Africans playing for European clubs. Sub-Saharan Africans have found themselves the target of racism by European fans. FIFA has been trying hard to crack down on racist outburst during games.[268][269][270]
Rugby is popular in sub-Saharan Africa. TheConfederation of African Rugby governs rugby games in the region. South Africa is a major force in the game and won the Rugby World Cup in1995,2007 and2019. Africa is also allotted one guaranteed qualifying place in theRugby World Cup.
Cricket has a following. TheAfrican Cricket Association is an international body which oversees cricket in African countries. South Africa and Zimbabwe have their own governing bodies. In 2003 theCricket World Cup was held in South Africa, first time it was held in sub-Saharan Africa.
Over the years,Ethiopia andKenya have produced many notable long-distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent. Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to themarathon.[271] Famous runners includeHaile Gebrselassie,Kenenisa Bekele,Paul Tergat, andJohn Cheruiyot Korir.[272]
The development oftourism in this region has been identified as having the ability to create jobs and improve the economy. South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius, Botswana, Ghana, Cape Verde, Tanzania and Kenya have been identified as having well developed tourism industries.[273]Cape Town and the surrounding area is very popular with tourists.[274]
Sub-Saharan Africa is composed of 49 countries. Only six African countries are not geopolitically a part of sub-Saharan Africa:Algeria,Egypt,Libya,Morocco,Tunisia andWestern Sahara (claimed by Morocco); they form theUN subregion ofNorthern Africa, which also makes up the largest bloc of theArab World. Nevertheless, some international organisations include Sudan as part of North Africa. Although a long-standing member of theArab League, Sudan has around 30% non-Arab populations in the west (Darfur,Masalit,Zaghawa), far north (Nubian) and south (Kordofan,Nuba),[275][276][277][278][279][280] and a largely Arabised native Nubian population that represents the majority at 70% hence its inclusion in North Africa, but geographically and culturally Sudan is part of Sub Saharan Africa.Mauritania andNiger only include a band of the Sahel along their southern borders. All other African countries have at least significant portions of their territory within sub-Saharan Africa.
^abcdRaunig, Walter (2005).Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internationalen Littmann-Konferenz 2. bis 5. Mai 2002 in München. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 130.ISBN3-447-05175-2. Retrieved9 June 2016.ancient Arabic geography had quite a fixed pattern in listing the countries from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean: These are al-Misr (Egypt) – al-Muqurra (or other designations for Nubian kingdoms) – al-Habasha (Abyssinia) – Barbara (Berber, i.e. the Somali coast) – Zanj (Azania, i.e. the country of the "blacks"). Correspondingly almost all these terms (or as I believe: all of them!) also appear in ancient and medieval Chinese geography
^International Association for the History of Religions (1959),Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131,West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs
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^According to theCIA FactbookArchived 5 August 2012 atarchive.today: Angola, Benin, Burundi, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Chad, the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, and Zambia
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^Lisa A. Corathers (January 2009)."Manganese"(PDF). Minerals.usgs.gov.Archived(PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved19 October 2015.Land-based manganese resources are large but irregularly distributed; those of the United States are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs. South Africa accounts for about 80% of the world's identified manganese resources, and Ukraine accounts for 10%.
^John F. Papp (2001)."Chromium"(PDF).U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook. Minerals.usgs.gov.Archived(PDF) from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved19 October 2015.About 42% of world reserves and about 75% of the world reserve base are located in South Africa.
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^Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003)ISBN978-0-85229-956-2 p. 306 However, Southern Africa is predominantly Christian. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa.Ian S. Markham,(A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.)Archived 12 November 2010 at theWayback Machine is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at theWorld Christian Encyclopedia, summarised hereArchived 5 March 2016 at theWayback Machine, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see:The List: The World's Fastest-Growing ReligionsArchived 25 January 2010 at theWayback Machine, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
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^Davidson, Basil (1969).The African Genius, An Introduction to African Social and Cultural History. Little, Brown and Company: Boston, pp. 168–80.LCCN70-80751.
^Eglash, Ron: "African Fractals: Modern computing and indigenous design." Rutgers 1999ISBN0-8135-2613-2
^Richmond, Yale; Gestrin, Phyllis (2009).Into Africa: a guide to Sub-Saharan culture and diversity. Boston: Intercultural Press.ISBN978-1-931930-91-8.
^"ScienceDaily.com". ScienceDaily.com. 18 June 2007.Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved28 February 2018.
^"Men's outdoor world records".iaaf.org.Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved26 October 2013. As can be seen: 800m is Kenya; 5000m is Ethiopia; 10000m is Ethiopia; marathon is Kenya. The two exceptions are the 1500m and 3000m steeplechase records, though the latter is held byStephen Cherono, who was born and raised in Kenya.
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