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| Centurion | |
|---|---|
 Centurion Mk 5 tank atWorthington Tank Museum in CFB Borden (Ontario, Canada) | |
| Type | Main battle tank |
| Place of origin | United Kingdom |
| Service history | |
| In service | 1945–present (derivatives still in service) |
| Used by | seeOperators |
| Wars |
|
| Production history | |
| Unit cost | £35,000 (1950), £38,000 (1952)[1] |
| No. built | 4,423[2] |
| Specifications | |
| Mass | 50long tons (51 t)[3] |
| Length | |
| Width |
|
| Height | 9 ft 7.75 in (2.94 m)[3] |
| Crew | 4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver) |
| Armour | 51–152 mm (2.0–6.0 in) |
Main armament |
|
Secondary armament | Co-axialBesa machine gun (Mark 3).30 calBrowning machine gun (Mark 5 onwards)[3] |
| Engine | Rolls-Royce Meteor 4B[3] 650 hp (480 kW) at 2550rpm[3] |
| Power/weight | 13 hp/t (9.2 kW/t)[3] |
| Transmission | 5-speedMerrit-Brown Z51R Mk. F gearbox |
| Suspension | Modified Horstmann |
| Ground clearance | 1 ft 8 in (0.51 m)[3] |
| Fuel capacity | 120 imperial gallons (546 L; 144 US gal)[3] |
Operational range | 32.5 mi (52.3 km) cross country, 62.5 mi (100.6 km) on road (Marks 3, 5, and 6)[3] |
| Maximum speed | 21.5 mph (34.6 km/h)[3] |
TheFV4007 (A41) Centurion was the primarymain battle tank of theBritish Army during the post-World War II period. Introduced in 1945, it is one of the most successful post-war tank designs, remaining in production into the 1960s, and seeing combat into the 1980s.[4][5][6][7][8][9] Thechassis was adapted for several other roles, and these variants have remained in service. It was a very popular tank with good armour,mobility, and a powerful main armament.
Development of the Centurion began in 1943 with manufacture beginning in January 1945. Six prototypes arrived in Belgium less than a month after the war in Europe ended in May 1945.[10] It entered combat with the British Army in theKorean War in 1950 in support of the UN forces. The Centurion later served on the Indian side in theIndo-Pakistani War of 1965, where it fought against US-suppliedM47 andM48 Patton tanks, and it served with theRoyal Australian Armoured Corps in theVietnam War.
Israel's army used Centurions in the 1967Six-Day War, the 1973Yom Kippur War, the1978 South Lebanon conflict, and the1982 Lebanon War. Centurions modified as armoured personnel carriers were used inGaza, theWest Bank and on the Lebanese border. Jordan used Centurions, first in 1970 to fend off the Syrian incursion within its borders during theJordanian Civil War and later in theGolan Heights in 1973. South Africa deployed its Centurions in Angola during theSouth African Border War.[11]
The Centurion became one of the most widely used tank designs, equipping dozens of armies around the world, with some in service until the 1990s.[12] During the2006 Lebanon War, theIsrael Defense Forces employed modified Centurions asarmoured personnel carriers andcombat engineering vehicles. South Africa still operates over 170 Centurions, which were modernised in the 1980s and 2000s as theOlifant (elephant).[13]
Between 1946 and 1962, 4,423 Centurions were produced,[14] consisting of 13 basic marks and numerous variants. In the British Army it was replaced by theChieftain.
In 1943, the Directorate of Tank Design, underSir Claude Gibb, was asked to produce a new design for a heavycruiser tank under theGeneral Staff designation A41. After a series of fairly mediocre designs in the A series in the past, and bearing in mind the threat posed by the German88 mm gun, theWar Office demanded a major revision of the design requirements, specifically: increased durability and reliability, the ability to withstand a direct hit from the German 88 mm gun and providing greater protection against mines. Initially in September 1943 the A41 tank was to weigh no more than 40 long tons (45 short tons; 41 t), the limit for existing Mark I and Mark II transport trailers and for aBailey bridge of 80 ft (24 m) span. The Britishrailway loading gauge required that the width should not exceed 10 ft 8 in (3.25 m) and the optimum width was 10 ft 3 in (3.12 m),[15] but, critically, for the new tank this restriction had been lifted by the War Office under pressure from the Department of Tank Design. A high top speed was not important, while agility was to be equal to that of theComet. A high reverse speed was specified, as during the fighting in southern Italy, Allied tanks were trapped in narrow sunken roads by the German Army. The modified production gearbox had a two-speed reverse, with the higher reverse speed similar to second gear.[16][17]
The Department produced a larger hull by replacing the long-travel five-wheelChristie suspension used on the Comet with a six-wheelHorstmann suspension, and extending the spacing between the second and third wheels. The Christie suspension, with vertical spring coils between side armour plates, was replaced by a Horstmann suspension with three horizontally sprung, externally mounted two-wheelbogies on each side. The Horstmann design did not offer the same ride quality as the Christie system, but took up less room and was easier to maintain.[18] In case of damage bymines, individual suspension and wheel units could be replaced relatively easily. The hull was redesigned with welded, sloped armour and featured a partially cast turret with the highly regarded17-pounder (76.2 mm/3-inch) as the main gun and a 20 mmPolsten cannon in an independent mounting to its left. With aRover-builtRolls-Royce Meteor engine, as used on the Comet andCromwell, the new design would have excellent performance.[17]
But even before the Outline Specification of the A41 was released in October 1943, these limits were removed, and the weight was increased from 40 tons to 45 long tons (50 short tons; 46 t), because of the need for heavier armour and a wider turret (too wide for the tank to be transported by rail) with a more powerful gun.[19] The new version carried armour equal to the heaviestinfantry tanks, while improved suspension and engines provided cross-country performance superior to even the early cruiser tanks. The War Office decided it would be wiser to build new trailers, rather than hamper what appeared to be a superb design. HistorianDavid Fletcher states, "But was Centurion, after all, a Universal Tank? The answer has to be a qualified negative."[20]The design mockup, built byAEC Ltd, was viewed in May 1944. Subsequently, twenty pilot models were ordered with various armament combinations: ten with a 17-pounder and a 20 mmPolsten gun (of which half had aBesa machine gun in the turret rear and half an escape door), five with a 17-pounder, a forward Besa machine gun and an escape door, and five with a QF 77 mm gun and a driver-operated hull machine gun.[21]
Prototypes of the original 40-ton design, the Centurion Mark I, had 76 mm of armour in the frontglacis, which was thinner than that on the then current infantry tanks (theChurchill), which had 101 mm or 152 mm on the Churchill Mk VII and VIII being produced at the time. However, the glacis plate was highly sloped, and so the effective thickness of the armour was very high—a design feature shared by other effective designs, such as the GermanPanther tank and SovietT-34. The turret was well armoured at 152 mm. The tank was also highly mobile, and easily outperformed the Comet in most tests. The uparmoured Centurion Mark II soon arrived; it had a new 118 mm-thick glacis and the side and rear armour had been increased from 38 mm to 51 mm.[citation needed] Only a handful of Mk I Centurions had been produced when the Mk II replaced it on the production lines.[dubious –discuss] Full production began in November 1945 with an order for 800[22] on production lines atLeyland Motors,Lancashire theRoyal Ordnance FactoriesROF Leeds andRoyal Arsenal, andVickers atElswick. The tank entered service in December 1946 with the5th Royal Tank Regiment.[23]
Soon after the Centurion's introduction, Royal Ordnance finished work on the 84 mm calibreOrdnance QF 20 pounder tank gun. With this, the Centurion went through another upgrade to mount the 20-pounder. By this point, the usefulness of the 20 mm Polsten had been called into question, it being unnecessarily large for use against troops,[citation needed] so it was replaced with a Besa machine gun in a completely cast turret. The new Centurion Mark III also featured a fully automaticstabilisation system for the gun, allowing it to fire accurately while on the move, dramatically improving battlefield performance.[24] Production of the Mk 3 began in 1948.[25] The Mk 3 proved substantially more capable than prior variants, resulting in the earlier designs being removed from service as soon as the new Mk 3s became available, and existing tanks were then either converted into the Centurionarmoured recovery vehicle (ARV) Mark 1 for use by theRoyal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers or upgraded to Mk 3 standard. Improvements introduced with the Mk 3 included a more powerful version of the engine and a new gun sight and gun stabiliser.[25]
_de_tanks_klaar_om_uit_te_rukken%2c_Bestanddeelnr_915-1143.jpg)
The 20-pounder gun was used until the Royal Ordnance Factories introduced the105 mm L7 gun in 1959. All later variants of the Centurion, from Mark 5/2 on, used the L7.[17]
Design work for the Mk 7 was completed in 1953, with production beginning soon afterwards.[26] One disadvantage of earlier versions was the limited range, initially just 65 miles (105 km) on hard roads, hence external auxiliary tanks and then a "monowheel" trailer were used. But the Mk7 had a third fuel tank inside the hull, giving a range of 101 miles (163 km). Additionally, it was found possible to put the Centurion on some European rail routes with their larger loading gauges.[27]
The Centurion was used as the basis for a range of specialist equipment, including combat engineering variants with a 165 mm demolition gunArmoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE).[28] It is one of the longest-serving designs of all time, serving as a battle tank for theBritish andAustralian armies from theKorean War (1950–1953) to theVietnam War (1961–1972), and as an AVRE during Operation Desert Storm in January–February 1991.[28]
The development cost of Centurion did not exceed £5 million.[29] The cost of a Centurion tank was £35,000 in 1950, but had risen to £38,000 in 1952.[30][31][i] Of this, "the gun control equipment costs £1,600, and the actual gadget that works the stabiliser only £100."[34] By comparison, during World War II aCovenanter tank cost the British Government £12,000, aCrusader tank cost £13,700, aMatilda tank cost £18,000, and aValentine tank £14,900;[35][ii] in 1967 aChieftain tank cost between £90,000 and £95,000,[36] and in 1984 aChallenger 1 tank cost £1.5 million.[37] In 1955,Sir Edward Boyle (theParliamentary Secretary to theMinister of Supply) told theHouse of Commons that "the cost of the Centurion tank has been coming down recently as production has settled into its stride."[38]
| Financial Year | Centurion Production[39] | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mark 1 | Mark 2 | Mark 3 | Mark 5 | Mark 7 | Mark 8 | Mark 9 | Mark 10 | Total | ||
| 1945/46 | 6 | 1 | 7 | |||||||
| 1946/47 | 48 | 57 | 105 | |||||||
| 1947/48 | 52 | 192 | 30 | 274 | ||||||
| 1948/49 | 139 | 139 | ||||||||
| 1949/50 | 193 | 193 | ||||||||
| 1950/51 | 229 | 229 | ||||||||
| 1951/52 | 500 | 500 | ||||||||
| 1952/53 | 573 | 573 | ||||||||
| 1953/54 | 565 | 1 | 566 | |||||||
| 1954/55 | 359 | 154 | 513 | |||||||
| 1955/56 | 245 | 36 | 129 | 11 | 421 | |||||
| 1956/57 | 176 | 168 | 51 | 395 | ||||||
| 1957/58 | 9 | 131 | 16 | 156 | ||||||
| 1958/59 | 78 | 16 | 94 | |||||||
| 1959/60 | 94 | 14 | 1 | 29 | 138 | |||||
| 1960/61 | 110 | 110 | ||||||||
| 1961/62 | 16 | 16 | ||||||||
| Total | 100 | 250 | 2,833 | 221 | 755 | 108 | 1 | 155 | 4,429 | |
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On 14 November 1950, the British Army's8th King's Royal Irish Hussars, equipped with three squadrons (64 tanks) of Centurion Mk 3, landed inPusan. The first recorded Centurion kill occurred near Seoul against a North Korean captured Cromwell tank.[40] Operating insub-zero temperatures, the 8th Hussars learnt the rigors of winter warfare: their tanks had to be parked on straw to prevent the steel tracks from freezing to the ground. Engines had to be started every half-hour, with each gear being engaged in turn to prevent them from being frozen into place.[41] During theBattle of the Imjin River, Centurions won lasting fame when they covered the withdrawal of the29th Brigade, with the loss of five tanks, most later recovered and repaired.[42] In 1952, Centurions of the5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards were also involved in theSecond Battle of the Hook where they played a significant role in repelling Chinese attacks. Centurions of the1st Royal Tank Regiment participated in theThird Battle of the Hook[42] repelling the PLA and also were involved in theBattle of the Samichon River in 1953. In a tribute to the 8th Hussars, GeneralJohn O'Daniel, commanding theUS 1st Corps, stated: "In their Centurions, the 8th Hussars have evolved a new type of tank warfare. They taught us that anywhere a tank can go, is tank country:even the tops of mountains."[41] However, the lack ofpintle-mounted machine guns on the turret meant that the Centurion was only able to fire in one direction and so was vulnerable to infantry attacks.[43]
By early 1952, with the Cold War heating up, NATO needed modern heavy tanks to meet the T-34 versions with the Warsaw Pact countries, and to deter Soviet forces by stationing them with theBAOR in West Germany, where the French had just the lightAMX-13, and the Germans had none. America was keen to have Centurions supplied to Denmark and the Netherlands under the Mutual Defence Assistance Program, as production of theM48 Patton would not start until April 1952. A Mk 3 cost £31,000 or £44,000 with ammunition.[44] TheRoyal Canadian Armoured Corps deployed a regiment of Centurions to Germany to support the Canadian Brigade.
During theSuez Crisis, British ground commander GeneralSir Hugh Stockwell believed that methodical and systematic armoured operations centred on the Centurion would be the key to victory.[45]
The Egyptians destroyed Port Said's Inner Harbour, which forced the British to improvise and use the Fishing Harbour to land their forces. The 2nd Brigade of the Parachute Regiment landed by ship in the harbour. Centurions of the British6th Royal Tank Regiment were landed and by 12:00 they had reached the French paratroopers. While the British were landing at Port Said, the men of the 2 RPC at Raswa fought off Egyptian counter-attacks featuringSU-100tank destroyers.[46]
After establishing themselves in a position in downtown Port Said,42 Commando headed down the Shari Muhammad Ali, the main north–south road to link up with the French forces at the Raswa bridge and the Inner Basin lock. While doing so, the Marines also took Port Said's gasworks. Meanwhile,40 Commando supported by theRoyal Tank Regiment remained engaged in clearing the downtown of Egyptian snipers. Lieutenant ColonelNorman Tailyour arranged for more reinforcements to be brought in via helicopter.[47][verification needed]
In 1967, theRoyal Australian Armoured Corps' (RAAC), 1st Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC) Squadron transferred to "A" Squadron, 3rd Cavalry Regiment inSouth Vietnam. Although they successfully conducted combat operations in their areas of operations, reports from the field stated that their lightly armouredM113A1 armoured personnel carriers were unable to force their way through dense jungle[48] limiting their offensive actions against enemy forces. The Australian government, under criticism in Parliament, decided to send a squadron of Australian Centurion tanks to South Vietnam.[48] The 20-pdr armed[49] Australian Centurions of 'C' Squadron,1st Armoured Regiment landed in South Vietnam on 24 February 1968, being headquartered atNui Dat inIII Corps (MR3).[50]
ColonelDonald Dunstan, later to begovernor ofSouth Australia, was the deputy task force commander of the1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) in South Vietnam.[51] Dunstan had quite possibly been the last Australian to use tanks and infantry in a combined operation during the Second World War (as part of theBougainville campaign), and the first since the war to command Australia's tanks and infantry in combat.[52] When he temporarily took over command during BrigadierRonald Hughes's absence, he directed that the Centurions be brought up from Nui Dat to reinforcefirebasesCoral andBalmoral, believing that they were a strong element that were not being used. Besides adding a great deal of firepower, Dunstan stated, he "couldn't see any reason why they [the Centurions] shouldn't be there".[53] His foresight enabled 1 ATF to kill approximately 267 soldiers from the 141st and 165th North Vietnamese Army Regiments during the six-week-longBattle of Coral–Balmoral in May 1968, as well as capturing 11 prisoners, 36 crew-served weapons, 112 small arms, and other miscellaneous enemy weapons.[54]
After the Battle of Coral-Balmoral, a third Centurion troop, which included two tankdozers, was formed. By September 1968, 'C' Squadron was brought to its full strength of four troops, each equipped with four Centurion tanks. By 1969, 'B' Squadron, 3rd Cavalry; 'A' Squadron, 1st Armoured Regiment; 'B' Squadron, 1st Armoured Regiment; and 'C' Squadron, 1st Armoured Regiment, had all made rotations through South Vietnam. Originally deployed as 26 Centurion tanks, after three and a half years of combat operations, 58 Centurions had served in country; 42 had suffered battle damage with six beyond repair and two crewmen had been killed in action.[48]
The Centurion crews, after operating for a few weeks in country, soon learned to remove the protective armoured side skirts from both sides of the tank, to prevent the vegetation and mud from building up between the track and the mudguards. Each Centurion in Vietnam normally carried a basic load of 62 rounds of 20 pounder shells, 4,000 rounds of.50 cal and 9,000 rounds of.30 cal machine gun ammunition for the tank commander's machine gun as well as the two coaxial machine guns.[55] They were equipped with petrol engines, which necessitated the use of an extra externally mounted 100-imperial-gallon (450 L) fuel tank, which was attached to the vehicle's rear.[56][57]
In 1965, the bulk of India's tank fleet was older M4 Sherman tanks, but India also had Centurion Mk.7 tanks, with the 20-pounder gun, and alsoAMX-13 andM3 Stuart light tanks. The Centurion Mk.7 at that time was one of the most modern western tanks.[58][59]
The offensive of Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division was blunted at theBattle of Asal Uttar on 10 September. Six Pakistani armoured regiments were opposed by three Indian armoured regiments. One of these regiments, 3 Cavalry, fielded 45 Centurion tanks. The Centurion, with its 20-pounder gun and heavy armour, proved to be more than a match for theM47 andM48 Pattons.[60] On the other side, when Pakistani Army armoured division primary composed of M47 and M48 Pattons, they proved to be able to penetrate only a few of the Centurion tanks, as witnessed in theBattle of Chawinda in theSialkot sector. A post-war US study of the tank battles in South Asia concluded that the Patton's armour could be penetrated by the20-pounder tank gun (84 mm) of the Centurion (later replaced by the even more successful L7 105 mm gun on the Mk. 7 version which India also possessed) as well as the 75 mm tank gun of theAMX-13 light tank.[citation needed]
In 1971, at theBattle of Basantar, an armoured division and an armoured brigade of the Pakistani I Corps confronted two armoured brigades of the Indian I Corps, which had Centurion tanks. This resulted in a substantial tank battle, between the American-built tanks of the Pakistani Army and the Indian Army's mixture of Soviet T-55s and British Centurions. Casualties were heavily skewed against the Pakistani force, with 46 tanks destroyed.
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The first country which bought Centurion tanks was Egypt. The first tanks were received in 1950.[61] Israel's formerly British Centurions were first delivered in 1959. Differing varieties of the Centurion were bought by Israel over the years from many different countries or captured in combat. Following their acquisition the Israelis quickly upgraded the tanks with British105 mm L7 instead of the original20-pounder main gun and renamed themSho't ("scourge" or "whip").
When theSix-Day War broke out in 1967, theIsrael Defense Forces (IDF) had 293 Centurion / Sho't tanks that were ready for combat[62] out of a total of 385 tanks. In Sinai, Egypt had 30 Centurion tanks.[63] All 30 Egyptian tanks were destroyed or captured by Israel during the conflict.[64] Israel also captured about 30 Jordanian Centurion tanks from a total of 90 in Jordanian service. 25 tanks were abandoned in Hebron by the 10th Jordanian Independent Tank Regiment.[65][66]
All Sho't tanks were upgraded with the more efficientContinental AVDS-1790-2A diesel engine (also used in theM48 and theM60 tanks) and an Allison CD-850-6transmission from 1970 to 1974. The upgraded version was named Sho't Kal Alef, and was later followed by three additional sub-variants called Bet, Gimel and Dalet according to the upgrades added.[41] The upgrades included thicker armour, new turret rotating mechanism, new gun stabiliser, improved ammunition layout with more rounds, and increased fuel capacity. A modernfire control system, an improvedfire extinguisher system, better electrical system and brakes, and the capability of installing reactive armour completed the modifications. They had American radios and either the original 7.62 mm calibre MG on the commander's cupola or a12.7 mm calibre HMG. The Sho't Kal could be distinguished from the Centurion by its raised rear deck, to accommodate the bigger engine.
The Sho't Kal version of Centurion earned its legendary status during the Battle of "The Valley of Tears" on theGolan Heights in the 1973Yom Kippur War. 105 Sho't Kal tanks of the7th Armoured Brigade and 20 Sho't tanks of the 188th Brigade defeated the advance of some 500 SyrianT-55s andT-62s and the Sho't Kal became emblematic of Israeli armour's prowess.[67] During the entire war, 1,063 Israeli tanks were disabled[68] (more than half of them Centurions), about 600 of which were completely destroyed or captured.[69] Some 35 Israeli Centurions were captured by Egypt,[70] dozens more were captured by Syria and Iraq[71] and four by Jordan.[72] On the other hand, 2,250 Arab tanks were disabled[68] (including 33 Jordanian Centurions, 18 of them destroyed[72]), 1,274 of them were destroyed or captured[73] (643 tanks were lost in the north and 631 were lost in the south[74]). After the war, to replace Israeli losses, the United States delivered 200 M60 and M48 tanks[75] and the United Kingdom delivered 400 Centurion tanks to Israel.[69]
Sho't Kal tanks withBlazer reactive armour package were used in the1982 invasion of Lebanon. During the war, 21 Centurion tanks were knocked out, of which 8 were destroyed.[76]
The Israelis started to retire the Sho't Kal during the 1980s and they were completely retired during the 2000s. Most of them were converted to Nagmasho't,Nagmachon, andNakpadon (heavyarmoured personnel carriers orInfantry Fighting Vehicles) andPuma armoured engineering vehicles.
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Fifty Centurions were purchased by Jordan between 1954 and 1956 and by 1967 about 90 Centurions were in service. The Jordanian Army used its Centurion tanks in theSix-Day War. In 1967, the 10th Independent Tank Regiment was equipped with 44 Centurion Mk.V tanks armed with 20pdr guns, but was initially deployed on the East Bank. Later, the unit was moved urgently to theHebron area, in West Bank, in order to link with the supposed Egyptian advance. Some Centurion tanks were destroyed and about 30 captured by the Israeli Army. Israelis entering Hebron captured 25 Jordanian Centurion tanks. The Royal Guards Brigade had one regiment that was also equipped with Centurions.
After the 1967 war, the army was rearmed and more Centurion tanks were purchased.
In September 1970 (Black September) Jordan used Centurions of the 40th Armoured Brigade against invading Syrian T-55 tanks. Jordan lost 75 to 90 tanks out of 200 involved.[77] Most of them were destroyed by Syrian tank fire at ar-Ramtha,[78] while others were destroyed by the PLO inAmman.[79]Palestinians used captured Centurion tanks against the Jordanian army.[80]
In 1972, Centurion tanks were reequipped with 105 mm guns. During the Yom Kippur War, the Jordanian 40th Armoured Brigade was deployed in theGolan front to support Syrian troops and showKing Hussein's concern for Arab solidarity. The 40th Armoured Brigade moved northward towards Sheikh Meskin, but its counterattack was uncoordinated and largely ineffective as the Israelis were in prepared defensive positions.
In 1982–1985, 293 surviving Centurions of the Jordanian Army were refitted with the diesel engine and transmission of theM60A1 tank in place of the original Meteor petrol engine, Belgian SABCA computerised fire-control system, which incorporated a laser range-finder and passive night sight for the gunner, Cadillac Gage electro-hydraulic turret drive and stabilisation system and a new Teledyne Continentalhydropneumatic suspension in place of the Horstmann units. These upgraded vehicles were called the Tariq. After retirement from service with the arrival of ex-BritishChallenger tanks in the late 1990s, several Tariqs were converted into heavy APCs (Dawsar).
In 1972 duringOperation Motorman in Northern Ireland, 165mm-armed Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVREs) with dozer blades were used to destroy barricades set up by the IRA in Northern Ireland. The 165mm demolition guns were pointed to the rear and covered up.
During Operation Desert Storm in 1991, 12 FV4003 Centurion Mk5 AVREs were deployed with32 Armoured Engineer Regiment as part ofBritish operations during the campaign. Three were lost in training in two separate incidents involving vehicle fires and detonation of munitions. One AVRE was destroyed on 5 February 1991 and two were destroyed in a second incident the next day.[81] Four minor injuries were sustained. No AVRES saw action during the operation.
South Africa ordered 203 Centurion Mk 3 tanks from the United Kingdom in 1953.[82] The South African Centurions entered service between 1955 and 1958, and included about 17 armoured recovery vehicles.[82] South Africa's major strategic priorities at the time revolved around assisting the British Armed Forces and other member states of theCommonwealth of Nations during a conventional war in the Middle East or Anglophone Africa.[83] The Centurions were procured specifically because they were compatible with Commonwealth tank tactics and pre-existing British armoured formations.[84]
Following South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1961, its priorities shifted toward internal security and diversifying national arms procurement outside traditional suppliers such as the United Kingdom.[84] To that end, 100 Centurion Mk 3s and 10 Centurion-based recovery vehicles were sold off to Switzerland in 1961.[82] The remaining Centurions were largely relegated to reserve roles as a result of maintenance problems compounded by parts shortages and a tendency to overheat in the hot African climate.[84][85] In 1972, the South African Army retrofitted some of its Centurions with the engines and transmission of American-madeM48 Patton tanks in an attempt to improve technical performance.[86] The upgraded Centurions were designatedSkokiaan and proved unpopular due to their high fuel consumption and poor operating range.[85]
Tanks reentered the mainstream of South African military doctrine in 1975, followingOperation Savannah, which saw the lightly armoured South African forces inAngola threatened by large formations of Soviet tanks supplied to thePeople's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) and theirCuban allies.[84] Operation Savannah was followed by further modifications and trials under ProjectSemel, and the South African government was obliged to finance the creation of a new private sector enterprise, theOlifant Manufacturing Company (OMC), to refurbish the Centurions.[84] During this period South Africa managed to restore its tank fleet to its original size by purchasing a number of surplus Centurion hulls from Jordan and India.[86] The passage ofUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 418, which imposed a mandatory arms embargo on the country, forced South Africa to purchase the hulls without turrets or armament.[82] OMC upgraded each Centurion with a 29-litre Continental turbocharged diesel engine and a new transmission adopted from theM60 Patton.[86] The refurbished Centurions were also armed with a South African variant of the Royal Ordnance L7 105 mm main gun.[86] They were accepted into service with the South African Armoured Corps as the Olifant Mk1A in 1985.[86]
South African expeditionary forces clashed with FAPLAT-54/55 tanks duringOperation Askari in late 1983 and early 1984; however, due to the enormous logistical commitment needed to keep the Olifants operational so far from conventional repair facilities, they were not deployed.[84] At length the South African mechanised infantry, bolstered byEland andRatel-90 armoured car squadrons, succeeded in destroying the tanks on their own, although severe delays were encountered due to their lack of adequate anti-tank weaponry.[87] Morale also suffered when inexperienced armoured car crews were ordered to take on the Angolan T-54/55s in their vulnerable vehicles.[87] Criticism in this regard led to the deployment of a single squadron of thirteen Olifant Mk1As to the Angolan border, where they were attached to the61 Mechanised Battalion Group.[87] Following theLusaka Accords, which effectively ensured a ceasefire between South Africa and Angola, these Olifants were placed into storage and the tank crews rotated out.[87]
The collapse of the Lusaka Accords and the subsequent launch ofOperation Moduler in late 1987 led to the Olifant squadron being reactivated on the direct orders of South African State PresidentP.W. Botha.[84] On 9 November 1987 the Olifants destroyed two Angolan T-55s during a heated nine-minute skirmish.[88] This marked the first occasion South African tanks had been sent into battle since World War II.[88] Throughout Operation Moduler, South African forces typically dispersed into an "arrowhead" formation, with Olifants in the lead, Ratel-90 armoured cars on the flanks, and the remainder of the mechanised infantry to the rear and centre.[89] Three Olifants were abandoned in a minefield duringOperation Packer and subsequently captured by FAPLA, while another two were damaged beyond immediate repair by mines but successfully recovered.[90][91] A number of others suffered varying degrees of track and suspension damage due to mines or Angolan tank fire, but were able to keep moving after field repairs.[92]
In the early 1990s, the Olifant Mk1A was superseded by the Olifant Mk1B, which incorporated major improvements in armour protection, a slightly more powerful engine, a double armoured floor for protection against mines, and a torsion bar suspension.[86]
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At the end of the Second World War, it was clear that the mix of tanks in service with theSwedish Armed Forces was not just obsolete but also presented a large logistical problem. Kungliga Arméförvaltningens Tygavdelning (KAFT, the weapons bureau of the army administrative service) conducted a study that concluded that the most cost-effective alternative would be to purchase the newly developed Centurion Mk 3, which, while quite modern, was judged to also have upgrade potential for future requirements. A purchase request was sent to Great Britain, but the reply was that no deliveries could be made before the needs of the British Army had been satisfied, which it was estimated would take between five and 15 years. Thus, in 1951, the vehicle bureau of KAFT was set to develop a Swedish alternative project,E M I L. Parallel with this, negotiations were initiated with France about buying theAMX-13.
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The British stance altered in early December 1952, due to the economic necessity of increasing exports to earn scarce foreign currency. Britain offered to sell the desired Centurions immediately. Minister of DefenceTorsten Nilsson arbitrarily placed an order of 80 Mk 3, with Swedish Army designationStridsvagn 81 (Strv 81), around new year 1952/1953, with the first delivery in April 1953.[93][94] In 1955, Sweden ordered a batch of 160 Centurion Mk 5 (also designatedStrv 81), followed by a batch of 110 Centurion Mk 10 around 1960 (designatedStrv 101). The Centurions, together with theStridsvagn 103, formed the backbone of the Swedish armoured brigades for several decades. The Mk 3 and the Mk 5 were upgraded with a 105 mm gun in the 1960s, becoming Strv 102.
Between 1983 and 1987, the Centurions had a midlife renovation and modification (REMO) done, which included among other things night vision equipment, targeting systems, laser range finders, improved gun stabilisation, thermal sleeves on the barrel and exhaust pipes and reactive armour developed by the Swedish FFV Ordnance. Around 80 Strv 102 were upgraded with Continental diesel engines and Allison gearboxes in the early 1980s, becomingStrv 104.[94]
The Swedish Army gradually phased out its Centurions and Strv 103s during the 1990s as a consequence of comparative tests of theT-72,Leclerc,M1A2 andLeopard 2 Improved They were replaced with theStridsvagn 121 andStridsvagn 122.[95]
AnAustralian Army Mk 3 Centurion Type K, Army Registration Number 169041, was involved in a smallnuclear test atEmu Field in Australia in 1953 as part ofOperation Totem 1. Built as number 39/190 at the Royal Ordnance Factory,Barnbow in 1951 it was assigned theBritish Army number 06 BA 16 and supplied to the Australian Commonwealth Government under Contract 2843 in 1952.[96]
It was placed less than 500 yards (460 m) from the 9.1 kt blast with its turret facing the epicentre, left with the engine running and a full ammunition load.[97] Examination after detonation found that it had been pushed away from the blast point by about 5 feet (1.5 m), pushed slightly left and that its engine had stopped working, but only because it had run out of fuel. Antennae were missing, lights and periscopes were heavily sandblasted, the cloth mantlet cover was incinerated, and the armoured side plates had been blown off and carried up to 200 yards (180 m) from the tank.[96] It could still be driven from the site. Had the tank been manned, the crew would most likely have been killed by theshock wave.[citation needed] The tank was driven back toWoomera three days after the nuclear test while it was still radioactive. All four members of the crew who drove the tank died in subsequent decades.[98]
169041, subsequently nicknamedThe Atomic Tank, was used in theVietnam War. In May 1969, during a firefight, 169041 (call sign 24C) was hit by arocket-propelled grenade (RPG). The turret crew were all wounded by fragmentation as the RPG hollow charge jet entered the lower left side of the fighting compartment, travelled diagonally across the floor and lodged in the rear right corner. Trooper Carter was evacuated, while the others remained on duty and the tank remained battleworthy.[97]
The Atomic Tank was located atRobertson Barracks inPalmerston, Northern Territory, before being moved toRAAF Base Edinburgh in South Australia. Although other tanks were subjected to nuclear tests, 169041 is the only one known to have withstood a blast and to have later fought in a war.[99]
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All Israeli Centurion 105-mm-gunned "Sho't" variants are an upgrade and advancement of the previous variant, and were produced after one another. Sho'ts were converted toarmoured personnel carriers after their service.
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The designations follows the pattern of main gun calibre in centimetres followed by the service order number. Hence the Strv 81 is read as the first tank with an 8 cm gun, while the Strv 101 is the first tank with a 10 cm gun that was accepted into service.[94]
All Swiss Centurion Tanks were used with a retrofitted Swiss MG 51 / 71 as secondary armament.[123][124]
Israel: Gun tanks retired, many hulls converted toNagmachon APCs,Nakpadon ARVs orPuma CEVs.
Jordan: Chassis re-used for the modernTemsah APC[125]
South Africa: In service as the indigenously developed and upgraded Mk1A/B and Mk2Olifant tank[126][127]
Australia: Replaced byLeopard 1.
Austria: Now fixed in bunkers.
Canada: Initially ordered 274 Mk 3 tanks, plus nine armoured recovery vehicles and four bridge-layers and additional orders followed. The Mk 5 (upgunned to 105 mm) were used later. From 1969 to 1970, the Canadian Army lists 77 tanks based in Germany (mostly Mk 5 and Mk 11's) and the remainder in Canada (60 at CFB Wainwright AB, 59 at CFSD Longue-Pointe QC, 46 at CFB Gagetown NB, 30 at CFB Borden, 29 at CFB Meaford ON, 27 at CFB Calgary AB, 12 at CFB Petawawa ON, six at RCEME School Kingston ON and one at the LETE Test Establishment Orleans, CFB Ottawa ON) for a total of 347 tanks (including 120 Mk 5s, three Mk 5 recovery tanks and some Mk 11s with IR and ranging guns fitted). Replaced byLeopard C1. Many of the tanks were sold to Israel, which converted them to diesel. Some are still in use as variants.
Denmark: 216 tanks plus 14 armoured recovery vehicles and 4 bridge-layers all types augmented byLeopard 1 variants
Egypt: Replaced byT-55s,T-62s,M60A3s andM1A1s.
India: Retired
Iraq: Retired
Kuwait: 50. Handed over toSomalia in the later half of 1979.[128]
Lebanon
Netherlands: Initially received 435 Mk 3 tanks beginning in 1953, increased to 592 by 1956; all were paid for by the United States as part of theMutual Defense Assistance Act. They replaced theSherman andRam tanks of theRoyal Netherlands Army.[129] As one was lost to an accidental fire in 1953, 591 gun tanks were on strength, and were soon upgraded to Mk 5 standard with 20-pounder gun and the British radio sets replaced by American types; one fuel mono-trailer was also available per tank. From 1956 to 1958, 66 ARV Mk 2s were procured, and in 1959–60, 70 Mk 7 tanks were delivered from the UK; these were all held in war reserve until 1969, when they were disposed of. Over the years 1960–72, 343 Mk 5 tanks were gradually upgunned with 105 mm guns to Mk 5/2 standard, as were 19 Mk 7s (to Mk 7/2) in 1966–68. Between 1962 and 1965, 17 Mk 5 tanks were converted to bridge layers, using the same bridge and mechanism as the AmericanM48 andM60 AVLBs; at the same time, another 17 Mk 5s with 20-pounder guns were converted to dozer tanks. As an experiment, one Mk 5/2 and one Mk 7/2 were converted by installing a diesel engine in 1968; though successful, it was not adopted because the cost approached that of buying a newLeopard 1. All Centurions were replaced byLeopard 2 MBTs in the 1980s, after having been used alongside Leopard 1s in the 1970s. Many Mk 5 and all Mk 7 tanks were returned to the United States (which had paid for them), which appears to have shipped most to Israel.[120]
New Zealand: Used 12 vehicles in the variant Mk 3 (three tanks) from UK, Mk 5 and 5/1 (total eight tanks) fromBritish Army inHong Kong and one ARV from UK. Retired from services in 1968 and seven tanks together with the ARV sold toAustralia. Two have been preserved and have been handed over to the museum. The other two went to the Waiouru training ground as hard range targets.[130]
Socialist Republic of Romania: DefectorIon Mihai Pacepa claimed Romania received one example from Israel in 1978 in exchange for increased immigration ofRomanian Jews to Israel. Pacepa further states thatNicolae Ceaușescu had planned to produce the Centurion under license.[131]
Singapore: 63 Centurion Mk3 and Mk7s bought from India in 1975 and more from Israel in 1993–1994, all upgraded to Israeli standard with new main guns and diesel engines[132] It has since been placed into storage and replaced by the Leopard 2SGs.[citation needed]
Somalia: Christopher F. Foss, writing in the second edition ofJane's Main Battle Tanks said that 'Kuwait was believed to have supplied Somalia with about 35 Centurions.'[133] TheMilitary Balance 1987–88 (p. 112) listed 30 Centurions held by the Somali Army.
Sweden: Replaced byStridsvagn 121 (Leopard 2A4)
Switzerland: Replaced byLeopard 2
United Kingdom: Replaced byChieftainPost W.W.II, the M36 was employed by theUS Army in Korea and was distributed to friendly nations including France, where it was used in Indo-China (Vietnam), Pakistan.
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