| TheStone Age |
|---|
| ↑beforeHomo (Pliocene) |
| ↓Chalcolithic |
Stone tools have been used throughouthuman history but are most closely associated withprehistoric cultures and in particular those of theStone Age. Stone tools may be made of eitherground stone orknapped stone, the latter fashioned by a craftsman called aflintknapper. Stone has been used to make a wide variety of tools throughout history, including arrowheads, spearheads, hand axes, andquerns. Knapped stone tools are nearly ubiquitous in pre-metal-using societies because they are easily manufactured, thetool stone raw material is usually plentiful, and they are easy to transport and sharpen.
Thestudy of stone tools is a cornerstone ofprehistoric archaeology because they are essentially indestructible and therefore a ubiquitous component of thearchaeological record.Ethnoarchaeology is used to further the understanding and cultural implications of stone tool use and manufacture.[1]
Knapped stone tools are made fromcryptocrystalline materials such aschert,flint,radiolarite,chalcedony,obsidian,basalt, andquartzite via a splitting process known aslithic reduction. One simple form of reduction is to strike stoneflakes from a nucleus (core) of material using ahammerstone or similar hard hammer fabricator. If the goal is to produce flakes, the remnantlithic core may be discarded once too little remains. In some strategies, however, a flintknapper makes a tool from the core by reducing it to a roughunifacial orbifacialpreform, which is further reduced by usingsoft hammer flaking or bypressure flaking the edges. More complex forms of reduction may produce highly standardized blades, which can then be fashioned into a variety of tools such asscrapers,knives,sickles, andmicroliths.
Archaeologists classify stone tools intoindustries (also known as complexes or technocomplexes[2]) that share distinctive technological or morphological characteristics.[3]
In 1969 in the 2nd edition ofWorld Prehistory,Grahame Clark proposed an evolutionary progression of flint-knapping in which the "dominant lithic technologies" occurred in a fixed sequence from Mode 1 through Mode 5.[4] He assigned to them relative dates: Modes 1 and 2 to the LowerPalaeolithic, 3 to theMiddle Palaeolithic, 4 to theUpper Paleolithic, and 5 to theMesolithic, though there were otherlithic technologies outside these Modes. Each region had its own timeline for the succession of the Modes: for example, Mode 1 was in use in Europe long after it had been replaced by Mode 2 in Africa.
Clark's scheme was adopted enthusiastically by the archaeological community. One of its advantages was the simplicity of terminology; for example, the Mode 1 / Mode 2 Transition. The transitions are currently of greatest interest. Consequently, in the literature the stone tools used in the period of thePalaeolithic are divided into four "modes", each of which designates a different form of complexity, and which in most cases followed a roughchronological order.
Stone tools found from 2011 to 2014 at theLomekwi archeology site nearLake Turkana in Kenya, are dated to be 3.3 million years old, and predate the genusHomo by about one million years.[5][6] The oldest knownHomo fossil is about 2.4–2.3 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old stone tools.[7] The stone tools may have been made byAustralopithecus afarensis, the species whose best fossil example isLucy, which inhabited East Africa at the same time as the date of the oldest stone tools, a yet unidentified species, or byKenyanthropus platyops (a 3.2 to 3.5-million-year-oldPliocene hominin fossil discovered in 1999).[8][5][9][10][11] Dating of the tools was done by dating volcanic ash layers in which the tools were found and dating the magnetic signature (pointing north or south due to reversal of the magnetic poles) of the rock at the site.[12]
Grooved, cut and fractured animal bone fossils, made by using stone tools, were found inDikika,Ethiopia near (200 yards) the remains ofSelam, a youngAustralopithecus afarensis girl who lived about 3.3 million years ago.[13]
The earliest stone tools in the era of genusHomo areMode 1 tools,[14] and come from what has been termed theOldowan Industry, named after the type of site (many sites, actually) found inOlduvai Gorge,Tanzania, where they were discovered in large quantities. Oldowan tools were characterised by their simple construction, predominantly usingcore forms. These cores were river pebbles, or rocks similar to them, that had been struck by a sphericalhammerstone to causeconchoidal fractures removing flakes from one surface, creating an edge and often a sharp tip. The blunt end is the proximal surface; the sharp, the distal. Oldowan is a percussion technology. Grasping the proximal surface, the hominid brought the distal surface down hard on an object he wished to detach or shatter, such as a bone or tuber.[citation needed] Experiments with modern humans found that all four Oldowan knapping techniques can be invented by knapping-naive participants, and that the resulting Oldowan tools were used by the experiment participants to access a money-baited box.[15]
The earliest known Oldowan tools yet found date from 2.6 million years ago, during theLower Palaeolithic period, and have been uncovered atGona in Ethiopia.[16] After this date, the Oldowan Industry subsequently spread throughout much of Africa, although archaeologists are currently unsure whichHominan species first developed them, with some speculating that it wasAustralopithecus garhi, and others believing that it was in factHomo habilis.[17]Homo habilis was the hominin who used the tools for most of the Oldowan in Africa, but at about 1.9-1.8 million years agoHomo erectus inherited them. The Industry flourished in southern and eastern Africa between 2.6 and 1.7 million years ago, but was also spread out of Africa and intoEurasia by travelling bands ofH. erectus, who took it as far east asJava by 1.8 million years ago andNorthern China by 1.6 million years ago.[citation needed]
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Eventually, more complex Mode 2 tools began to be developed through theAcheulean Industry, named after the site ofSaint-Acheul in France. The Acheulean was characterised not by the core, but by thebiface, the most notable form of which was thehand axe.[18] The Acheulean first appears in the archaeological record as early as 1.7 million years ago in theWest Turkana area ofKenya and contemporaneously in southern Africa.
The Leakeys, excavators at Olduvai, defined a "Developed Oldowan" Period in which they believed they saw evidence of an overlap in Oldowan and Acheulean. In their species-specific view of the two industries, Oldowan equated toH. habilis and Acheulean toH. erectus. Developed Oldowan was assigned tohabilis and Acheulean toerectus. Subsequent dates onH. erectus pushed the fossils back to well before Acheulean tools; that is,H. erectus must have initially used Mode 1. There was no reason to think, therefore, that Developed Oldowan had to behabilis; it could have beenerectus. Opponents of the view divide Developed Oldowan between Oldowan and Acheulean. There is no question, however, thathabilis anderectus coexisted, ashabilis fossils are found as late as 1.4 million years ago. Meanwhile, AfricanH. erectus developed Mode 2. In any case a wave of Mode 2 then spread across Eurasia, resulting in use of both there.H. erectus may not have been the only hominin to leave Africa; European fossils are sometimes associated withHomo ergaster, a contemporary ofH. erectus in Africa.
In contrast to an Oldowan tool, which is the result of a fortuitous and probably unplanned operation to obtain one sharp edge on a stone, an Acheulean tool is a planned result of a manufacturing process. The manufacturer begins with a blank, either a larger stone or a slab knocked off a larger rock. From this blank he or she removes large flakes, to be used as cores. Standing a core on edge on an anvil stone, he or she hits the exposed edge with centripetal blows of a hard hammer to roughly shape the implement. Then the piece must be worked over again, or retouched, with a soft hammer of wood or bone to produce a tool finely knapped all over consisting of two convex surfaces intersecting in a sharp edge. Such a tool is used for slicing; concussion would destroy the edge and cut the hand.
Some Mode 2 tools are disk-shaped, others ovoid, others leaf-shaped and pointed, and others elongated and pointed at the distal end, with a blunt surface at the proximal end, obviously used for drilling. Mode 2 tools are used for butchering; not being composite (having no haft) they are not very effective killing instruments. The killing must have been done some other way. Mode 2 tools are larger than Oldowan. The blank was ported to serve as an ongoing source of flakes until it was finally retouched as a finished tool itself. Edges were often sharpened by further retouching.
Eventually, the Acheulean in Europe was replaced by a lithic technology known as theMousterian Industry, which was named after the site ofLe Moustier in France, where examples were first uncovered in the 1860s. Evolving from the Acheulean, it adopted theLevallois technique to produce smaller and sharper knife-like tools as well as scrapers. Also known as the "prepared core technique", flakes are struck from worked cores and then subsequently retouched.[19] The Mousterian Industry was developed and used primarily by theNeanderthals, a native European and Middle Eastern hominin species, but a broadly similar industry is contemporaneously widespread in Africa.[20]
The widespread use of longblades (rather than flakes) of theUpper Palaeolithic Mode 4 industries appeared during theUpper Palaeolithic between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago, although blades were produced in small quantities much earlier by Neanderthals.[21] TheAurignacian culture seems to have been the first to rely largely on blades.[22] The use of blades exponentially increases the efficiency of core usage compared to the Levallois flake technique, which had a similar advantage over Acheulean technology which was worked from cores.
As humansspread to theAmericas in the Late Pleistocene,Paleo-Indians brought with them related stone tools, which evolved separately from Old World technologies. TheClovis point is the most widespread example of Late Pleistocene points in the Americas, dating to about 13,000 years ago.
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Mode 5 stone tools involve the production ofmicroliths, which were used in composite tools, mainly fastened to a shaft.[23] Examples include theMagdalenian culture. Such a technology makes much more efficient use of available materials like flint, although required greater skill in manufacturing the small flakes. Mounting sharp flint edges in a wood or bone handle is the key innovation in microliths, essentially because the handle gives the user protection against the flint and also improves leverage of the device.
In prehistoric Japan, ground stone tools appear during theJapanese Paleolithic period, that lasted from around 40,000 BC to 14,000 BC.[24] Elsewhere, ground stone tools became important during theNeolithic period beginning about 10,000 BC. These ground or polished implements are manufactured from larger-grained materials such asbasalt,jade andjadeite,greenstone and some forms ofrhyolite which are not suitable for flaking. The greenstone industry was important in theEnglish Lake District, and is known as theLangdale axe industry. Ground stone implements includedadzes,celts, andaxes, which were manufactured using a labour-intensive, time-consuming method of repeated grinding against an abrasive stone, often using water as a lubricant. Because of their coarse surfaces, some ground stone tools were used for grinding plant foods and were polished not just by intentional shaping, but also by use.Manos are hand stones used in conjunction withmetates for grinding corn or grain. Polishing increased the intrinsicmechanical strength of the axe. Polished stone axes were important for the widespread clearance of woods and forest during the Neolithic period, when crop and livestock farming developed on a large scale. They are distributed very widely and were traded over great distances since the best rock types were often very local. They also became venerated objects, and were frequently buried inlong barrows orround barrows with their former owners.[citation needed]
During theNeolithic period, large axes were made from flintnodules by knapping a rough shape, a so-called "rough-out". Such products were traded across a wide area. The rough-outs were then polished to give the surface a fine finish to create the axe head. Polishing increased the strength and durability of the product.[25] There were many sources of supply, includingGrimes Graves in Suffolk,Cissbury in Sussex andSpiennes nearMons in Belgium to mention but a few. InBritain, there were numerous small quarries indownland areas where flint was removed for local use, for example.[citation needed]
Many other rocks were used to make axes from stones, including theLangdale axe industry as well as numerous other sites such asPenmaenmawr andTievebulliagh in Co Antrim,Ulster. In Langdale, there manyoutcrops of thegreenstone were exploited, and knapped where the stone was extracted. The sites exhibit piles of waste flakes, as well as rejected rough-outs. Polishing improved themechanical strength of the tools, so increasing their life and effectiveness. Many other tools were developed using the same techniques. Such products were traded across the country and abroad.[citation needed]
Stone axes from 35,000 years ago are the earliest known use of a stone tool in Australia. Other stone tools varied in type and use among variousAboriginal Australian peoples, dependent on geographical regions and the type and structure of the tools varied among the different cultural and linguistic groups. The locations of the various artefacts, as well as whole geologic features, demarcated territorial and cultural boundaries of various linguistic and cultural groups' lands. They developed trade networks, and showed sophistication in working many different types of stone for many different uses, including as tools, food utensils and weapons, and modified their stone tools over the millennia to adapt to changing environments.Oral traditions carried the skills down through the ages.[26]
Complex stone tools were used by theGunditjmara of westernVictoria[27] until relatively recently.[28] Many examples are now held in museums.[27][26]
Flaked stone tools were made by extracting a sharp fragment of stone from a larger piece, called a core, by hitting it with a "hammerstone". Both the flakes and the hammerstones could be used as tools. The best types of stone for these tools are hard, brittle stones, rich insilica, such asquartzite,chert, flint,silcrete andquartz (the latter particularly in theKimberleys ofWestern Australia[26]). These were quarried frombedrock or collected as pebbles from watercourses and beaches, and often carried for long distances.[29] The flake could be used immediately for cutting or scraping, but were sometimes modified in a process called reduction to sharpen or resharpen the flake.[30]
Across northern Australia, especially inArnhem Land, the "Leilira blade", a rectangular stone flake shaped by striking quartzite or silcrete stone, was used as a spear tip and also as a knife, sometimes 30 cm (12 in) long. Tasmania did not have spears or stone axes, but the peoples there used tools which were adapted to the climate and environment, such as the use ofspongolite. In north-western Australia, "Kimberley point", a small triangular stone point, was created usingkangaroo bone which had been shaped with stone into an awl, to make smallserrations in the blade.[26]
Apart from being used as weapons and for cutting, grinding (grindstones), piercing and pounding, some stones, notablyochres, were used aspigment for painting.[26]
Stone tools are still one of the most successful technologies used by humans.[28]
The invention of theflintlock gun mechanism in the sixteenth century produced a demand for specially shapedgunflints.[31] The gunflint industry survived until the middle of the twentieth century in some places, including in the English town ofBrandon.[32]
Threshing boards with lithic flakes are used in agriculture from Neolithic, and are still used today in the regions where agriculture has not been mechanized and industrialized.
Glassy stones (flint, quartz,jasper,agate) were used with a variety ofiron pyrite ormarcasite stones aspercussion fire starter tools. That was the most common method of producing fire in pre-industrial societies. Stones were later superseded by use of steel,ferrocerium and matches.
For specialist purposesglass knives are still made and used today, particularly for cuttingthin sections forelectron microscopy in a technique known asmicrotomy. Freshly cut blades are always used since the sharpness of the edge is very great. These knives are made from high-quality manufactured glass, however, not from natural raw materials such as chert orobsidian. Surgical knives made from obsidian are still used in some delicate surgeries,[33] as they cause less damage to tissues than surgical knives and the resulting wounds heal more quickly. In 1975, American archaeologistDon Crabtree manufactured obsidian scalpels which were used for surgery on his own body.[28]
In archaeology, atool stone is a type of stone that is used to manufacture stone tools.
