A scene from theTabula Iliaca, bearing the inscription "Sack of Troy according to Stesichorus"
Stesichorus (/stɪˈsɪkərəs/;Greek:Στησίχορος,Stēsichoros; c. 630 – 555 BC) was a Greeklyric poet native ofMetauros[1] (Gioia Tauro today). He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres,[2] and for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrantPhalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering toHelen of Troy.
He was ranked among thenine lyric poets esteemed by the scholars ofHellenisticAlexandria, and yet his work attracted relatively little interest among ancient commentators,[3] so that remarkably few fragments of his poetry now survive. As David Campbell notes: "Time has dealt more harshly with Stesichorus than with any other major lyric poet."[4] Recent discoveries, recorded on Egyptian papyrus (notably and controversially, theLille Stesichorus),[5] have led to some improvements in our understanding of his work, confirming his role as a link betweenHomer's epic narrative and the lyric narrative of poets likePindar.[6]
Stesichorus also exercised an important influence on the representation of myth in 6th century art,[7] and on the development of Athenian dramatic poetry.[8]
Stesichorus was born inMetauros (modern Gioia Tauro) inCalabria, Southern Italy[9][10][11][12][13] c. 630 BC and died in Katane (modernCatania) inSicily in 555 BC. Some say that he came from Himera in Sicily, but that was due to him moving from Metauros to Himera later in life. When exiled fromPallantium inArcadia he came to Katane (Catania) and when he died there was buried in front of the gate which is called Stesichorean after him. In date he was later than the lyric poetAlcman, since he was born in the 37thOlympiad (632/28 BC). He died in the 56th Olympiad (556/2 BC). He had a brother Mamertinus who was an expert in geometry and a second brother Helianax, a law-giver. He was a lyric poet. His poems are in the Doric dialect and in 26 books. They say that he was blinded for writing abuse ofHelen and recovered his sight after writing anencomium of Helen, thePalinode, as the result of a dream. He was called Stesichorus because he was the first to establish (stesai) a chorus of singers to thecithara; his name was originally Tisias.
The specific dates given by theSuda for Stesichorus have been dismissed by one modern scholar as "specious precision"[14] — its dates for thefloruit ofAlcman (the 27th Olympiad), the life of Stesichorus (37th–56th Olympiads) and the birth ofSimonides (the 56th Olympiad) virtually lay these three poets end-to-end, a coincidence that seems to underscore a convenient division between old and new styles of poetry.[15] Nevertheless, theSuda's dates "fit reasonably well" with other indications of Stesichorus's life-span — for example, they are consistent with a claim elsewhere inSuda that the poetSappho was his contemporary, along withAlcaeus andPittacus, and also with the claim, attested by other sources, thatPhalaris was his contemporary.[16]Aristotle quoted a speech the poet is supposed to have made to the people of Himera warning them against the tyrannical ambitions of Phalaris.[17] The Byzantine grammarianTzetzes also listed him as a contemporary of the tyrant and yet made him a contemporary of the philosopherPythagoras as well.[18] According toLucian, the poet lived to 85 years of age.[19]Hieronymus declared that his poems became sweeter and more swan-like as he approached death,[20] andCicero knew of a bronzed statue representing him as a bent old man holding a book.[21]Eusebius dated hisfloruit in Olympiad 42.2 (611/10 BC) and his death in Olympiad 55.1 (560/59 BC).[22]
TheSuda's claim thatHesiod was the father of Stesichorus can be dismissed as "fantasy"[23] yet it is also mentioned byTzetzes[24] and the Hesiodicscholiast Proclus[25] (one of them however named the mother of Stesichorus via Hesiod as Ctimene and the other as Clymene). According to another tradition known toCicero, Stesichorus was thegrandson of Hesiod[26] yet even this verges on anachronism since Hesiod was composing verses around 700 BC.[27] Stesichorus might be regarded as Hesiod's literary "heir" (his treatment of Helen in the Palinode, for example, may have owed much to Hesiod'sCatalogue of Women)[28] and maybe this was the source of confusion about a family relationship.[29] According toStephanus of Byzantium[30] and the philosopherPlato[31] the poet's father was named Euphemus, but an inscription on aherm fromTivoli listed him as Euclides.[32] The poet's mathematically inclined brother was named Mamertinus by theSuda but a scholiast in a commentary onEuclid named him Mamercus.[33]
Stesichorus's lyrical treatment of epic themes was well-suited to a western Greek audience, owing to the popularity of hero-cults in southern Italy andMagna Graeca, as for example the cult ofPhiloctetes atSybaris,Diomedes atThurii and theAtreidae atTarentum.[34] It was also a sympathetic environment for his most famous poem, The Palinode, composed in praise of Helen, an important cult figure in the Doric diaspora.[35] On the other hand, the western Greeks were not very different from their eastern counterparts and his poetry cannot be regarded exclusively as a product of the Greek West .[36] His poetry reveals bothDoric andIonian influences and this is consistent with theSuda'a claim that his birthplace was either Metauria or Himera, both of which were founded by colonists of mixed Ionian/Doric descent.[37] On the other hand, a Doric/Ionian flavour was fashionable among later poets — it is found in the 'choral' lyrics of the Ionian poetsSimonides andBacchylides — and it might have been fashionable even in Stesichorus's own day.[38] His poetry included a description of the river Himera[39] as well as praise for the town named after it,[40] and his poemGeryoneis included a description of Pallantium in Arcadia.[41] His possible exile from Arcadia is attributed by one modern scholar to rivalry betweenTegea andSparta.[42] Traditional accounts indicate that he was politically active in Magna Graeca. Aristotle mentions two public speeches by Stesichorus: one to the people of Himera, warning them against Phalaris, and another to the people ofLocri, warning them against presumption (possibly referring to their war againstRhegium).[43]Philodemus believed that the poet once stood between two armies (which two, he doesn't say) and reconciled them with a song — but there is a similar story aboutTerpander.[44] According to the 9th century scholarPhotius, the termeight all (used by gamblers at dice) derives from an expensive burial the poet received outside Catana, including a monument with eight pillars, eight steps and eight corners,[45] but the 3rd century grammarianJulius Pollux attributed the same term to an 'eight all ways' tomb given to the poet outside Himera.[46]
Many modern scholars don't accept theSuda's claim that Stesichorus was named for his innovations inchoral poetry — there are good reasons to believe that his lyrical narratives were composed for solo performance (seeWorks below). Moreover the name wasn't unique — there seems to have been more than one poet of this name[47] (seeSpurious works below). TheSuda in yet another entry refers to the fact, now verified by Papyrus fragments, that Stesichorus composed verses in units of three stanzas (strophe, antistrophe and epode), a format later followed by poets such asBacchylides andPindar.Suda claims this three-stanza format was popularly referred to asthe three of Stesichorus in a proverbial saying rebuking cultural buffoons ("You don't even know the three of Stesichorus!"). According to one modern scholar, however, this saying could instead refer to the following three lines of his poemThe Palinode, addressed to Helen of Troy:[48]
Helen of Troy's bad character was a common theme among poets such as Sappho and Alcaeus[50] and, according to various ancient accounts, Stesichorus viewed her in the same light until she magically punished him with blindness for blaspheming her in one of his poems.[51] According to a colourful account recorded byPausanias, she later sent an explanation to Stesichorus via a man fromCroton, who was on a pilgrimage to White Island in the Black Sea (near the mouth of the Blue Danube), and it was in response to this that Stesichorus composed the Palinode,[52] absolving her of all blame for the Trojan War and thus restoring himself to full sight.
The ancients associated the lyrical qualities of Stesichorus with the voice of the nightingale, as in this quote from thePalatine Anthology: "...at his birth, when he had just reached the light of day, a nightingale, travelling through the air from somewhere or other, perched unnoticed on his lips and struck up her clear song."[53] The account is repeated byPliny the Elder[54] but it was the epic qualities of his work that most impressed ancient commentators,[47] though with some reservations on the part ofQuintilian:
The greatness of Stesichorus' genius is shown among other things by his subject-matter: he sings of the most important wars and the most famous commanders and sustains on his lyre the weight of epic poetry. In both their actions and their speeches he gives due dignity to his characters, and if only he had shown restraint he could possibly have been regarded as a close rival of Homer; but he is redundant and diffuse, a fault to be sure but explained by the abundance of what he had to say. —Quintilian[55]
In a similar vein,Dionysius of Halicarnassus commends Stesichorus for "...the magnificence of the settings of his subject matter; in them he has preserved the traits and reputations of his characters",[56] andLonginus puts him in select company withHerodotus,Archilochus andPlato as the 'most Homeric' of authors.[57]
Modern scholars tend to accept the general thrust of the ancient comments – even the 'fault' noted by Quintilian gets endorsement: 'longwindedness', as one modern scholar calls it, citing, as proof of it, the interval of 400 lines separating Geryon's death from his eloquent anticipation of it.[58] Similarly, "the repetitiveness and slackness of the style" of the recently discovered Lille papyrus has even been interpreted by one modern scholar as proof of Stesichorean authorship[59] – though others originally used it as an argument against.[5] Possibly Stesichorus was even more Homeric than ancient commentators realized – they had assumed that he composed verses for performance by choirs (the triadic structure of the stanzas, comprising strophe, antistrophe and epode, is consistent with choreographed movement) but a poem such as theGeryoneis included some 1500 lines and it probably required about four hours to perform – longer than a chorus might reasonably be expected to dance.[60] Moreover, the versatility of lyric meter is suited to solo performance with self-accompaniment on the lyre[61] – which is how Homer himself delivered poetry. Whether or not it was a choral technique, the triadic structure of Stesichorean lyrics allowed for novel arrangements of dactylic meter – the dominant meter in his poems and also the defining meter of Homeric epic – thus allowing for Homeric phrasing to be adapted to new settings. However, Stesichorus did more than recast the form of epic poetry – works such as thePalinode were also a recasting of epic material: in that version of the Trojan War, the combatants fought over a phantom Helen while the real Helen either stayed home or went to Egypt (see a summarybelow). The 'Lyric Age' of Greece was in part self-discovery and self-expression – as in the works of Alcaeus and Sappho – but a concern for heroic values and epic themes still endured:
Stesichorus'citharodic narrative points to the simultaneous coexistence of different literary genres and currents in an age of great artistic energy and experimentation. It is one of the exciting qualities of early Greek culture that forms continue to evolve, but the old traditions still remain strong as points of stability and proud community, unifying but not suffocating. —Charles Segal.[62]
The following description of the birthplace of the monsterGeryon, preserved as a quote by the geographerStrabo,[63] is characteristic of the "descriptive fulness" of his style:[64]
The Homeric qualities of Stesichorus' poetry are demonstrated in a fragment of his poemGeryoneis describing the death of the monster Geryon. A scholiast writing in a margin on Hesiod'sTheogony noted that Stesichorus gave the monster wings, six hands and six feet, whereas Hesiod himself had only described it as 'three-headed'.[67] yet Stesichorus adapted Homeric motifs to create a humanized portrait of the monster,[68] whose death in battle mirrors the death ofGorgythion in Homer'sIliad, translated here byRichmond Lattimore:
He bent drooping his head to one side, as a garden poppy
bends beneath the weight of its yield and the rains of springtime;" (Iliad 8.306-8)[69]
Homer here transforms Gorgythion's death in battle into a thing of beauty—the poppy has not wilted or died.[70] Stesichorus adapted the simile to restore Death's ugliness while still retaining the poignancy of the moment:[71]
The mutual self-reflection of the two passages is part of the novel aesthetic experience that Stesichorus here puts into play.[73] The enduring freshness of his art, in spite of its epic traditions, is borne out byAmmianus Marcellinus in an anecdote about Socrates: happening to overhear, on the eve of his own execution, the rendition of a song of Stesichorus, the old philosopher asked to be taught it: "So that I may know something more when I depart from life."[74]
According to theSuda, the works of Stesichorus were collected in 26 books, but each of these was probably a long, narrative poem. The titles of more than half of them are recorded by ancient sources:[75]
Helen: This might have been the poem in which he portrayed Helen of Troy according to convention as a bad character.[35] His interest in the Trojan epic cycle is evinced in a number of works.[76]
Helen: Palinodes: An introduction to a poem ofTheocritus refers to "the first book of Stesichorus'sHelen",[77] indicating that there were at least two books under this title. Similarly, a commentary recorded on a papyrus, indicates there were two Palinodes, one censuring Homer, the other Hesiod for the false story that Helen went to Troy.[78]Dio Chrysostom summarises two accounts of the Palinode, one in which Helen never sailed for Troy, and a second in which she ended up in Egypt[79] – only her image arrived at Troy. It is not known if either of the two Palinodes was separate from theHelen book(s).[80]
Sack of Troy: Some scholars think the content of the poem can be deduced from a relief carved onto a monument near Rome, but this is contentious – see the section belowTabula Iliaca.
Wooden Horse: The title was recorded in a fragmentary form on a roll of papyrus: Στη...Ίππ.. ~ Ste(sichorus's Wooden) Hor(se). Possibly it was just an alternative title forSack of Troy.[81]
Nostoi (The Returns): This dealt with the return of the Greek warriors from Troy.
Geryoneis: This relates the theft byHeracles ofGeryon's cattle. Many recently discovered fragments allow us a glimpse of the poet at work over the length of the entire poem.[82] It includes:
romantic geography – descriptions of the Sun's voyage in a golden cup under Ocean, ofEurytion's homeland, the 'all-golden'Hesperides, and of Pallanteum inArcadia, which possibly featured as the home of theCentaur, Pholus;
poignant speeches based on Homeric models – a proud speech by Geryon to Heracles that echoes Sarpedon's speech to Glaucus,[83] and an exchange between Geryon and his motherCallirhoe that echoes exchanges betweenAchilles-Thetis[84] andHector-Hecuba;[85]
heroic action, again with Homeric colouring – a description of the dying Geryon that echoes the death ofGorgythion.[86]
Cerberus: The title is mentioned byJulius Pollux only because it included the Greek word for a purse but clearly it relates to Heracles's descent intoHades to fetchCerberus.[87]
Cycnus: Ascholiast commenting on a poem by Pindar summarises the story: Heracles's final triumph overCycnus after an initial defeat.[88]
Skylla: The title is mentioned by a scholiast onApollonius of Rhodes in a passing reference toSkylla's parentage[89] and possibly it involved Heracles.[82]
Thebaid,Seven Against Thebes?: These two titles are conjectured by one modern scholar[90] as appropriate for the longest fragment attributed to Stesichorus – discovered in 1974 among the wrappings of a mummy of the 2nd century BC stored at the university ofLille, generally known asThe Lille Stesichorus. It presents a speech by a Theban queen, possiblyJocasta, and some scholars have denied attribution to Stesichorus on account of its "drab, repetitious flaccidity".[91] But opinions are mixed and one scholar sees in it "...Stesichorus' full mastery of his technique, handling epic situations and characters with the flexibility and poignancy of lyric."[62]
Eriphyle: The title is mentioned bySextus Empiricus in relation to an imaginative account ofAsclepius raising the dead at Thebes.[92] Evidently it concernsEriphyle's role in the Theban epic cycle but with an imaginative twist.
Europa: The title is mentioned by a scholiast on thePhoenissae ofEuripides in relation to Stesichorus's imaginative variation on the traditional tale ofCadmus, the brother ofEuropa, sowing dragon's teeth – Stesichorus presentedAthena in that role.[93]
Oresteia: It came in two parts. The title is mentioned by a scholiast onPeace, a play byAristophanes, attributing some of the lyrics to a borrowing from Stesichorus's poem.[94] The 'second'Oresteia is mentioned in a scholiast's comment onDionysius of Thrace, according to which Stesichorus attributed the discovery of the Greek alphabet toPalamedes.[95]
Boar-hunters:Athenaeus mentions the title when quoting a description of a boar nosing the earth and the poem evidently concernedMeleager and theCalydonian Boar.[96]
Some poems were wrongly attributed to Stesichorus by ancient sources, includingbucolic poems and some love songs such asCalyce andRhadine. It is possible that these are the works of another Stesichorus belonging to the fourth century, mentioned in theMarmor Parium.[100]
Bovillae, about twelve miles outside Rome, was the original site of a monument dating from the Augustan period and now located in theCapitoline Museum. The stone monument features scenes from the fall of Troy, depicted in low relief, and an inscription:Ιλίου Πέρσις κατα Στησίχορον ('Sack of Troy according to Stesichorus').[101] Scholars are divided as to whether or not it accurately depicts incidents described by Stesichorus in his poemSack of Troy. There is, for example, a scene showingAeneas and his fatherAnchises departing 'forHesperia' with 'sacred objects', which might have more to do with the poetry ofVirgil than with that of Stesichorus.[102][103][104]
^Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" inThe Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds.), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186
^abP.J. Parsons, "The Lille Stesichorus",Zeitschreift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik Vol. 26 (1977), pages 7–36
^Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" inThe Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds.), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 187; Steve Reece, "Homeric Influence in Stesichorus' Nostoi,"Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 25 (1988) 1-8.
^C.M. Bowra,Greek Lyric Poetry, Oxford University Press (1961), pages 119–26
^Richard Jebb,Bacchylides: The poems and fragmentsCambridge University Press (1905), page 32Google digitalized version
^M.L.West, 'Stesichorus',The Classical Quarterly, New Series Vol.21, No.2 (Nov. 1971) page 302
^Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186-7
^TzetzesVit.Hes. 18, cited by Campbell,Loeb page 35
^ProclusHes. Op. 271a, cited by Campbell inLoeb page 35
^CiceroDe Rep. 2.20, cited by Campbell inLoeb page 37
^Jasper Griffin, "Greek Myth and Hesiod", J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds),The Oxford History of the Classical World, Oxford University Press (1986), page 88
^Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" inThe Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 191
^Richard Lattimore translation, "Hesiod" Intro. pp. 5, The University of Michigan Press, 1959
^Stephanus of Byzantiums.v.Μάταυρος, cited by Campbell inLoeb page 35
^PlatoPhaedrus 244a, cited by Campbell inLoeb page 37
^Proclus inEuclid Prolog. 2, cited by Campbell inLoeb page 37
^Richard Jebb,Bacchylides: The poems and fragments Cambridge Uni Press (1905), page 32
^abCharles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 191
^G.O.Hutchinson,Greek Lyric Poetry: a commentary on selected larger pieces, Oxford University Press (2001), page 113
^Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186
^G.O.Hutchinson,Greek Lyric Poetry: a commentary on selected larger pieces, Oxford University press (2001), page 115
^abCharles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 187
^PlatoPhaedr. 243a, cited by Campbell inLoeb page 93
^Sappho 16.6–10 and Alcaeus B 10PLF, cited by Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 191
^IsocratesHel. 64, cited by Campbell inLoeb, page 93
^Pausanias 3.19.11–13, cited by Campbell inLoeb, page 41 (Campbell's translation: "In the Black Sea off the mouths of the Danube there is an island called White Island...note: Actually off the estuary of the Dnieper.")
^Anth.Pal. 2.125ss, cited by David Campbell,Loeb, pages 59
^Plin.N.H.10.82, cited by David Campbell,Loeb, page 55
^QuintilianInst.10.1.62, cited by David Cambell,Loeb, pages 59
^Dion.Hal.Imit.2.421, cited by David Campbell,Loeb, pages 55
^Longinusde subl.13.3, cited by David Campbell,Loeb, pages 55
^David A. Campbell,Greek Lyric III, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 4
^Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186, note 2
^C.O.Pavese,Tradizione e generi poetici della Graecia arcaica, Rome (1972), cited by C.Segal,The Cambridge History of Greek Literature, page 187
^M.L.West, 'Stesichorus',Classical Quarterly 21 (1971) pages 302–14, cited by D.Campbell inGreek Lyric III, page 5
^abCharles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 200
^Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" inThe Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds.), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 188
^Sir Edward Bromhead,The Remains of Stesichorus in an English Version, (1849), page 11Google digitalized version
^Schol.Hes.Theog.287, cited by David Campbell,Loeb, page 89
^Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 190, 194–95
^Iliad 8.306-8, translated by Richmond Lattimore,The Iliad of Homer, University of Chicago Press (1951)
^Susanne Lindgren Wofford,The Choice of Achilles: The Ideology of Figure in the Epic. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992.
^Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 190
^Geryoneis, P.Oxy.2617 fr.5, cited by D.Campbell,Greek Lyric III page 76
^Richard Garner,From Homer to Tragedy: the art of allusion in Greek poetry, Routledge (1990), page 17
^Amm.Marc.28.4.15, cited by D.Campbell,Greek Lyric III page 56
^See M. Noussia-Fantuzzi in M. Fantuzzi and C. Tsagalis, eds., "The Epic Cycle and Its Ancient Reception," 2015; also P. J. Finglass and A. Kelly, eds.Stesichorus in Context, 2015.
^Argum.Theocr.18, cited by David Campbell,Loeb, page 91
^P.Oxy.2506 fr.26col.i, cited by David Cambell,Loeb, page 97
^Dio ChrysostomOr.11.40s, cited by David Campbell,Loeb, page 95
^Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 192
^abCharles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds),The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 193
^Zahra Newby,Art and Inscription in the Ancient World, Cambridge University Press (2006), Introduction
^David A.Campbell,Greek Lyric III, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 107
^Charles Seagal,Archaic Choral Lyric, 'The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature', Cambridge University Press (1985), page 196, note 1
M. Davies,Poetarum Melicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (PMGF) vol. 1, Oxford 1991: testimonies of his life and works pp. 134–151, fragments pp. 152–234 (previously D. L. Page,Poetae Melici Graeci (PMG), Oxford 1962, andSupplementum Lyricis Graecis (SLG), Oxford 1974).
D. A. Campbell,Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others (Loeb Classical Library).
G. O. Hutchinson,Greek Lyric Poetry: A Commentary on Selected Larger Pieces (Alcman, Stesichorus, Sappho, Alcaeus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides, Bacchylides, Pindar, Sophocles, Euripides), Oxford, 2001.
J. M. Edmonds,Lyra Graeca II, pp. 23 (Loeb Classical Library) Harvard University Press, 1958
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