| Standard High German | |
|---|---|
| Standard German, High German, also often simply German | |
| Standardhochdeutsch,Standarddeutsch,Hochdeutsch | |
| Region | German-speaking Europe |
| Speakers | L1: 76 million (2019)[1] L2: 59 million Total: 130 million |
Indo-European
| |
Early forms | |
Standard forms | |
| Signed German,Austrian Sign Language,Swiss-German Sign Language | |
| Official status | |
| Regulated by | Council for German Orthography[2] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | de |
| ISO 639-2 | ger (B)deu (T) |
| ISO 639-3 | deu |
| Glottolog | stan1295 |
| Linguasphere | 52-ACB–dl |
Standard High German (SHG),[3] less preciselyStandard German orHigh German[a] (German:Standardhochdeutsch,Standarddeutsch,Hochdeutsch or, in Switzerland,Schriftdeutsch), is the umbrella term for thestandardized varieties of theGerman language, which are used in formal contexts and for communication between different dialect areas. German is apluricentricDachsprache with currently three codified (or standardised) specific national varieties:German Standard German,Austrian Standard German andSwiss Standard German.[4]
Regarding the spelling and punctuation, a recommended standard is published by theCouncil for German Orthography which represents the governments of all majority and minority German-speaking countries and dependencies.[5] Adherence is obligatory for government institutions, including schools. Although there is no official standards body regulating pronunciation, there is a long-standingde facto standard pronunciation (Bühnendeutsch), most commonly used in formal speech and teaching materials; it is similar to the formal German spoken in and aroundHanover. Adherence to those standards by private individuals and companies, including the print and audio-visual media, is voluntary.Austrian German has had standard pronunciation exceptions since 1904 (Luick's österreichische Bühnenaussprache).[6] In Switzerland, no such official pronunciation codex exists, yet most Swiss Standard German speakers are markedly different sounding from Hanover-type phonetic targets.[7]
Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region but as awritten language developed over a process of several hundred years in which writers tried to write in a way that was understood in the largest area.[citation needed]
Martin Luther's translation of the Bible in 1522 (New Testament, Old Testament 1534) was an important development towards an early standardization of written German. Luther based his translation largely on the already developed language of theSaxon chancery, which was more widely understood than other dialects and as aCentral German dialect, was felt to be "halfway" between the dialects of the north and south. Luther drew principally onEast Central German dialects in his codification efforts.[8]
Later in 1748, a grammar manual byJohann Christoph Gottsched,Grundlegung einer deutschen Sprachkunst, was key in the development of German writing and standardization of the language. Similarly to Luther, Gottsched based his manual on the Central German variant of theUpper Saxon area.[9] Over the course of the mid-18th century and onward, a written standard then began to emerge and be widely accepted in German-speaking areas, thus ending the period ofEarly New High German.
Until about 1800, Standard German was almost entirely a written variety. People inNorthern Germany who spoke mainlyLow Saxon dialects, which were very different from Standard German, learned it more or less as a foreign language. However, the Northern pronunciation (of Standard German) later became considered standard[10][11] and spread southward. In some regions such as aroundHanover, the local dialect has completely died out as spoken language but is preserved in dialect literature and scholarly descriptions.[citation needed]
It can thus be argued that it is the spread of Standard German as a language taught at school that defines the GermanSprachraum, which was thus a political decision, rather than a direct consequence ofdialect geography. That allowed areas with dialects with very little mutual intelligibility to participate in the same cultural sphere. Some linguists claim today that aOne Standard German Axiom is a discipline-defining feature ofGermanistik.[12] Outside of Switzerland, Austria and South Tyrol, local dialects tend to be used mainly in informal situations or at home and in dialect literature.[13]
In German, Standard German is generally calledHochdeutsch, reflecting the fact that itsphonetics are largely those of theHigh German spoken in the southern uplands andthe Alps (includingAustria,Switzerland,Liechtenstein andparts of northern Italy as well assouthern Germany). The corresponding termLow German reflects the fact that these dialects belong to the lowlands stretching towards theNorth Sea. The widespread but mistaken impression that Hochdeutsch is so-called because it is perceived to be "good German" has led to use of the supposedly less judgmentalStandarddeutsch ("Standard German"),deutsche Standardsprache ("German standard language"). On the other hand, the "standard" written languages of Switzerland and Austria have each been codified as standards distinct from that used in Germany. For this reason, "Hochdeutsch" or "High German", originally a mere geographic designation, applies unproblematically toSwiss Standard German andAustrian Standard German as well as toGerman Standard German and may be preferred for that reason.[14]
Since the 1980s, German has widely been considered apluricentric language with the national standard varieties ofGerman Standard German,Austrian Standard German andSwiss Standard German.[16] These varieties of standard German differ above all invocabulary,pragmatics andpronunciation, but in some instances also ingrammar and, in only a handful of cases, inorthography. In formal writing, the differences are small; in regards to the spoken language, the different varieties of Standard German are easily recognized by most speakers,[13] as the audio and video samples illustrate.
These three national standards (German, Austrian and Swiss) have each been adopted by other German-speaking countries and communities as their standard form of German.[17] The German standard is applied inLuxembourg,Belgium, andNamibia while the Swiss standard has been adopted inLiechtenstein.[18]
The variation of the Standard German varieties must not be confused with the variation of the localGerman dialects. Even though the Standard German varieties are to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct.[19] All varieties of Standard German are based on the common tradition of the written German language, whereas the localdialects have their own historical roots that go further back than the unification of the written language, and in the case of Low German, belong to a different language entirely.
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In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties according to situation. However, there are two (or three) exceptions:
While the three principal national varieties are recognized as three distinct standards, the differences are few, perhaps comparable to the difference between British and American English. The pronouncing dictionary of the Duden dictionary group[22] codifies the standard pronunciation for German Standard German and allows for a small number of divergences; for example, the string "äh" has two authorized pronunciations, /ɛː/ and /eː/. Some regions see only the first as correct, and others use only the second; Duden now recognizes both as correct. Standardized High German pronunciation is generally used in radio and television as well as in German learning materials for non-natives and at least aspirationally by language teachers. The accent is documented in reference works such asDeutsches Aussprachewörterbuch (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al.,[c]Duden 6 Das Aussprachewörterbuch (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) byMax Mangold and the training materials at theWestdeutscher Rundfunk (West German Broadcasting) andDeutschlandfunk (Radio Germany). It is an invented accent, rather than one radiating from any particular German-speaking city. It is often said that the people ofHannover speak German with an accent that comes closest to the standard of the Duden dictionaries, but the claim is debatable, particularly since it may apply equally well to the rest of Northern Germany.[citation needed]
Standard High German is written in theLatin alphabet. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with anumlaut mark, namelyä,ö andü, as well as theEszett orscharfes s (sharp s):ß. In Switzerland and Liechtenstein,ss is used instead ofß.
A first step to standardisation, although non-prescriptive, ofEarly New High German was introduced by theLuther Bible of 1534. In consequence, the written language of the chancery ofSaxony-Wittenberg rose in importance in the course of the 17th century so much so that it was used in texts such as the 1665 revision of theZürich Bible.
The First Orthographical Conference convened in 1876 by order of the government ofPrussia, but failed.Konrad Duden published the first edition of his dictionary, later simply known as theDuden, in 1880. The first spelling codification by theSecond Orthographic Conference of 1901, based on Duden's work, came into effect in 1902.
In 1944 there was a failed attempt at another reform; this was delayed on the order ofHitler and not taken up again after the end ofWorld War II.
In the following decades German spelling was essentially decidedde facto by the editors of the Duden dictionaries. After the war, this tradition was followed with two different centers:Mannheim inWest Germany andLeipzig inEast Germany. By the early 1950s, a few other publishing houses had begun to attack the Duden monopoly in the West by publishing their own dictionaries, which did not always conform to the "official" spellings prescribed by Duden. In response, the Ministers of Culture of the federal states in West Germany officially declared the Duden spellings to be binding as of November 1955 ("Duden-Monopol" or "Dudenmonopol", "Duden-Privileg" or "Dudenprivileg").[citation needed][23]
The orthography reform of 1996 was based on an international agreement signed by the governments of theGerman-speaking countriesGermany,Austria,Liechtenstein andSwitzerland; but acceptance of the reform was limited and led to public controversy and considerable dispute. The states (Bundesländer) ofNorth Rhine-Westphalia andBavaria refused to accept it. At one point, the dispute reached the highest court, which quickly dismissed it, claiming that the states had to decide for themselves and that only in schools could the reform be made the official rule – everybody else could continue writing as they had learned it.
While, as of 2004[update], most German print media followed the reform, some newspapers, such asDie Zeit,Neue Zürcher Zeitung andSüddeutsche Zeitung, created their own in-house orthographies.
After 10 years, without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major revision of the spelling reform was installed in 2006 because there were disagreements regardingcapitalization and splitting of German words. Also revised were the rules governing punctuation marks.[citation needed]
The most noticeable change was probably in the use of the letterß, calledscharfes s (Sharp S) orEszett (pronouncedess-tsett, coming from ſz). Traditionally, this letter was used in three situations:
Examples areFüße,paßt, anddaß. Currently, only the first rule is in effect, making the reformed spellingsFüße,passt, anddass. The wordFuß 'foot' has the letterß because it contains a long vowel, even though that letter occurs at the end of a syllable. The logic of this change is that an 'ß' is a single letter whereas 'ss' are two letters, so the same distinction applies as (for example) between the wordsden anddenn.
This is a selection ofcognates in both English and Standard German. Instead of the usual infinitive ending-en, Standard German verbs are indicated by a hyphen after their stems. Words that are written with capital letters in Standard German are nouns.
| English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| and | und | arm | Arm | bear | Bär | beaver | Biber | bee | Biene | beer | Bier | best | best | better | besser |
| blink | blink- | bloom | blüh- | blue | blau | boat | Boot | book | Buch | brew | brau- | brewery | Brauerei | bridge | Brücke |
| brow | Braue | brown | braun | church | Kirche | cold | kalt | cool | kühl | dale | Tal | dam | Damm | dance | tanz- |
| dough | Teig | dream | Traum | dream | träum- | drink | Getränk | drink | trink- | ear | Ohr | earth | Erde | eat | ess- |
| far | fern | feather | Feder | fern | Farn | field | Feld | finger | Finger | fish | Fisch | fisher | Fischer | flee | flieh- |
| flight | Flug | flood | Flut | flow | fließ- | flow | Fluss (Fluß) | fly | Fliege | fly | flieg- | for | für | ford | Furt |
| four | vier | fox | Fuchs | glass | Glas | go | geh- | gold | Gold | good | gut | grass | Gras | grasshopper | Grashüpfer |
| green | grün | grey | grau | hag | Hexe | hail | Hagel | hand | Hand | hard | hart | hate | Hass | haven | Hafen |
| hay | Heu | hear | hör- | heart | Herz | heat | Hitze | heath | Heide | high | hoch | honey | Honig | hornet | Hornisse |
| hundred | hundert | hunger | Hunger | hut | Hütte | ice | Eis | king | König | kiss | Kuss (Kuß) | kiss | küss- | knee | Knie |
| land | Land | landing | Landung | laugh | lach- | lie, lay | lieg-, lag | lie, lied | lüg-, log | light(A) | leicht | light | Licht | live | leb- |
| liver | Leber | love | Liebe | man | Mann | middle | Mitte | midnight | Mitternacht | moon | Mond | moss | Moos | mouth | Mund |
| mouth (river) | Mündung | night | Nacht | nose | Nase | nut | Nuss (Nuß) | over | über | plant | Pflanze | quack | quak- | rain | Regen |
| rainbow | Regenbogen | red | rot | ring | Ring | sand | Sand | say | sag- | sea | See(f.) | seam | Saum | seat | Sitz |
| see | seh- | sheep | Schaf | shimmer | schimmer- | shine | schein- | ship | Schiff | silver | Silber | sing | sing- | sit | sitz- |
| snow | Schnee | soul | Seele | speak | sprech- | spring | spring- | star | Stern | stitch | Stich | stork | Storch | storm | Sturm |
| stormy | stürmisch | strand | strand- | straw | Stroh | straw bale | Strohballen | stream | Strom | stream | ström- | stutter | stotter- | summer | Sommer |
| sun | Sonne | sunny | sonnig | swan | Schwan | tell | erzähl- | that(C) | dass (daß) | the | der, die, das, des, dem, den | then | dann | thirst | Durst |
| thistle | Distel | thorn | Dorn | thousand | tausend | thunder | Donner | zwitscher- | upper | ober | warm | warm | wasp | Wespe | |
| water | Wasser | weather | Wetter | weave | web- | well | Quelle | well | wohl | which | welch | white | weiß | wild | wild |
| wind | Wind | winter | Winter | wolf | Wolf | word | Wort | world | Welt | yarn | Garn | year | Jahr | yellow | gelb |
| English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German | English | German |
English has taken manyloanwords from German, often without any change of spelling (aside from frequently eliminatingumlauts and notcapitalizing nouns):
| German word | English loanword | Definition of German word |
|---|---|---|
| abseilen (v.) | abseil | to descend by rope / to fastrope |
| Angst | angst | fear |
| Ansatz | ansatz | onset / entry / math / approach |
| Anschluß/Anschluss | Anschluss | connection / access / annexation |
| Automat | automat | automation / machine |
| Bildungsroman | bildungsroman | novel concerned with the personal development or education of the protagonist |
| Blitzkrieg | blitzkrieg,shortendblitz | lit. 'lightning war': military strategy |
| Bratwurst | bratwurst | fried sausage |
| Delikatessen | delicatessen | delicious food items |
| Dirndl | dirndl | lit. "young woman": type of feminine dress |
| Doppelgänger | doppelgänger | lit. "double going / living person alive", look-alike of somebody |
| Dramaturg | dramaturge | professional position within a theatre or opera company that deals mainly with research and development of plays or operas |
| Edelweiß orEdelweiss (Swiss spelling) | edelweiss | edelweiss flower |
| Ersatz | ersatz | lit. "replacement", typically used to refer to an inferior substitute for a desired substance or item |
| Fest | fest | feast / celebration |
| Flugabwehrkanone | flak | lit. "flight defence gun": anti-aircraft gun, abbreviated as FlaK |
| Frankfurter | frankfurt(er) | demonym ofFrankfurt am Main |
| Gedankenexperiment | gedankenexperiment | thought experiment |
| Geländesprung | geländesprung | ski jumping for distance on alpine equipment |
| Gemütlichkeit | gemütlichkeit | snug feeling, cosiness, good nature, geniality |
| Gestalt | gestalt | form or shape / creature / scheme; a concept of 'wholeness' (etymologicallydieGestalt comes from thepast participle of Old High Germanstellen used as anoun)[24] |
| Gesundheit! | Gesundheit! (Amer.) | health / bless you! (when someone sneezes) |
| Glockenspiel | glockenspiel | percussion instrument |
| Hamburger | hamburger & other burgers | demonym ofHamburg |
| Heiligenschein | heiligenschein | lit. "saints' light": halo (as a religious term) |
| Hinterland | hinterland | lit. "(military) area behind the front-line": interior / backwoods |
| kaputt | kaput | out of order, not working |
| Katzenjammer | katzenjammer | lit. "cats' lament": hangover, crapulence |
| Kindergarten | kindergarten | lit. "children's garden" – nursery or preschool |
| Kitsch | kitsch | fake art, something produced exclusively for sale |
| Kobold | kobold,cobalt | small supernatural being |
| KrautorSauerkraut | kraut, Kraut | herb, cabbageor pickled cabbage |
| Kulturkampf | kulturkampf | cultural war |
| Leitmotiv | leitmotif | guiding theme (the verbleiten means "to guide, to lead") |
| NationalsozialismusorNationalsozialist | nazi | national socialismor national socialist |
| Nixe | nixie | water spirit |
| Panzer | panzer | lit. "armour": tank |
| plündern (v.) | to plunder | lit. "taking goods by force" (original meaning "to take away furniture" shifted in German and both borrowed by English during theThirty Years' War) |
| Poltergeist | poltergeist | lit. "rumbling ghost" |
| Realpolitik | realpolitik | diplomacy based on practical objectives rather than ideals |
| Reich | Reich | empire or realm |
| Rucksack | rucksack | backpack (Ruck →Rücken which means "back") |
| Sauerkraut | sauerkraut | shredded and salted cabbage fermented in its own juice |
| Schadenfreude | schadenfreude | taking pleasure in someone else's misfortune, gloating |
| Spiel | spiel | lit. "game / play": sales pitch / lengthy speech with the intent to persuade |
| Sprachbund | sprachbund | linguistic term, lit. "language alliance": area of linguistic convergence |
| Sprachraum | sprachraum | linguistic term, lit. "place/area/room of a language": area where a certain language is spoken |
| Strudel | strudel | lit. "whirlpool": kind of pastry |
| Unterseeboot | U-boat | lit. "under sea boat": submarine, abbreviated asU-Boot |
| über (prep.) | uber | over, above |
| Übermensch | übermensch | superhuman, "overhuman" |
| Vampir | vampire | dead person that feeds on the living |
| verklemmt (adj.) | verklemmt (Amer.) | lit. "jammed": inhibited, uptight |
| Waldsterben | waldsterben | lit. "forest dieback", dying floral environment |
| Wanderlust | wanderlust | desire, pleasure, or inclination to travel or walk |
| Wasserscheide | watershed | lit. "water division":drainage divide |
| Weltanschauung | weltanschauung | lit. "perception of the world": worldview |
| Wunderkind | wunderkind | lit. "wonder child": child prodigy, whiz kid |
| Zeitgeist | zeitgeist | lit. "spirit of the times": the spirit of the age; the trend at that time |
| Zeitnot | zeitnot | chess term,lit. 'time trouble' |
| Zugzwang | zugzwang | chess term, lit. "compulsion to move" |
| Zwischenzug | zwischenzug | chess term, lit. "intermediate move" |
TheDuden is thede facto officialdictionary of the Standard High German language, first published byKonrad Duden in 1880. The Duden is updated regularly, with new editions appearing every four or five years. As of August 2017[update], it was in its 27th edition and in 12 volumes, each covering different aspects such asloanwords,etymology,pronunciation,synonyms, and so forth.
The first of these volumes,Die deutsche Rechtschreibung (German Orthography), has long been theprescriptive source for the spelling of Standard High German. TheDuden had become the bible of the Standard High German language, being the definitive set of rules regarding grammar, spelling, and usage of Standard High German.[25]
TheÖsterreichisches Wörterbuch ("Austrian Dictionary"), abbreviatedÖWB, is the officialdictionary of the Standard High German language in theRepublic of Austria. It is edited by a group of linguists under the authority of the AustrianFederal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture (German:Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur). It is the Austrian counterpart to the GermanDuden and contains a number of terms unique toAustrian German or more frequently used or differently pronounced there.[26] A considerable amount of this "Austrian" vocabulary is also common inSouthern Germany, especiallyBavaria, and some of it is used inSwitzerland as well. Since the 39th edition in 2001 the orthography of theÖWB has been adjusted to theGerman spelling reform of 1996. The dictionary is also officially used in the Italian province ofSouth Tyrol. It is currently available in 44th edition, from 2022, and includes an online version with limited access.[27]
Several organisations promote the use and learning of the Standard German language.
The government-backedGoethe-Institut,[28] (named afterJohann Wolfgang von Goethe) aims to enhance the knowledge of German culture and language within Europe and the rest of the world. This is done by holding exhibitions and conferences with German-related themes, and providing training and guidance in the learning and use of the German language. For example, theGoethe-Institut teaches theGoethe-Zertifikat German language qualification.
The German state broadcasterDeutsche Welle provides radio and television broadcasts in Standard German and 30 other languages across the globe.[29] Its Standard German language services are spoken slowly and thus tailored for learners.Deutsche Welle also provides ane-learning website for learning Standard German.[30]
Zu Hause oder mit den Angehörigen sprechen 60,1% der betrachteten Bevölkerung hauptsächlich Schweizerdeutsch, 23,4% Französisch, 8,4% Italienisch, 10,1% Hochdeutsch und 4,6% Englisch
mittelhochdeutsch gestalt = Aussehen, Beschaffenheit; Person, Substantivierung von: gestalt, althochdeutsch gistalt, 2. Partizip von stellen.
