China's financing of stadiums as a diplomatic tool
Stadium diplomacy refers to the construction of stadiums and sports facilities in other nations as a form offoreign aid. China is the most prominent practitioner of this strategy, using it as a form ofsoft power to bolster diplomatic ties.[1][2][3] The practice dates back to at least 1958, when China funded theNational Sports Stadium in Mongolia.[4]
The following includes overseas stadiums and sports facilities that were either donated outright or built with financial assistance from the Chinese government, typically in the form of grants, concessional loans, or other aid-linked financing in cooperation with the host country.[2] Projects carried out solely by Chinese construction firms on commercial terms, without financing support from the Chinese government, are not included.
Yaoundé Multipurpose Sports Complex (2009) – A 5,000-seat indoor arena built in downtown Yaoundé as a gift from the Chinese government.[8]Limbe Stadium (2012) andKouekong Stadium (2016) in Bafoussam were both constructed by Chinese contractors with financing from concessional loans provided by the Export-Import Bank of China.[9][10]
The 15,000 seaterNational Stadium (2013) construction byTop International Engineering began in 2010 and ended in 2013, at a cost of 1.4 billion Cape Verdean escudos, funded by the Chinese government.[11]
Sekondi-Takoradi Stadium (2008) andTamale Stadium (2008) were constructed with Chinese assistance, whileBaba Yara Stadium andAccra Sports Stadium were renovated, all in preparation for the2008 Africa Cup of Nations, supported by a soft loan of USD 31 million from the Chinese government.[21]Cape Coast Sports Stadium (2016), a 15,000-seat multipurpose venue built by China Jiangxi Corporation at a reported cost of USD 30 million, was officially handed over to the Ministry of Youth and Sports as one of Ghana’s largest China-aided infrastructure projects at the time.[22] In March 2025, following a temporary CAF suspension of Ghana’s stadiums for international matches, the government announced plans to renovate the Cape Coast facility and designate it as the exclusive home venue for theBlack Stars.[23]
Nongo Stadium is a 50,000 seater stadium finished in 2012 as a gift from Chinese government to the country.[24] As Guinea was selected to host2025 Africa Cup of Nations, an agreement was signed between two countries to further construct three more stadiums.[25]
Estádio 24 de Setembro is built by China National Corporation For Overseas Economic Cooperation.[26] The stadium was later refurbished with Chinese help.[27]
Stade Olympique d'Ebimpé, a state-of-the-art stadium built for the2023 Africa Cup of Nations, is considered one of Africa’s most technologically advanced football arenas. Designed with sweeping, spaceship-like curves and a roof that mimics an ocean wave, the stadium showcases elaborate architectural details including massive coliseum-style pillars and tricolour latticing reflecting the national flag. The project cost around £260 million ($330 million) and a large portion was funded by the Chinese government under itsBelt and Road Initiative, with construction managed by theBeijing Construction Engineering Group.[28]
Moi International Sports Centre, a facility which includes 60,000 seat stadium, 120-room hotel, and large swimming pool was built by the Chinese government as an assistance project in 1987 to enable Kenya host theAll Africa Games. Another Chinese government grant of 12.8 million USD provided funds for the refurbishment of the complex from 2010-2012 by Shengli Engineering Construction.[29][30]
The financing for 15,000 seat multi-useStade Anjalay (1991) was provided by the government of China in the form of a 35 million RMB loan for construction of the stadium and two bridges.[36][37] The loan did not carry interest, and had a 10-year grace period and 10 year repayment term.[36]
Both the building of theStade Général Seyni Kountché and its renovation almost two decades later were funded by Chinese support. Initial construction was handled by the China National Corporation for Overseas Economic Cooperation and renovation construction was handled by the China Geo-Engineering Corporation.[39][40]
Stade Amahoro (1988) - Construction of this aid project by the China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation started in 1984 and finished in 1988.[41] During theRwandan genocide the stadium was the safety point whichTutsis tried to escape to as it was secured by UN peacekeepers.[42]
Swimming pool (1992) - The Chinese government assisted in the construction of a swimming pool in 1992 and would later also help out in the renovation of the pool in 2011, in time for the training of Seychellois athletes for the forthcoming Indian Ocean Islands Games.[44]
Mogadishu Stadium (1978) - The stadium seating a capacity of 35,000 was constructed by a Chinese construction firm. The structure has withstood the long conflict in Somalia, and serves as the staging base for the peacekeeping operations ofAMISOM and earlier to that was a base forUnited Nations Operation in Somalia II, forming part of the backdrop of the events ofBlack Hawk Down.[47]
Uhuru Stadium enlargement (1969);Amaan Stadium (1970);Tanzania National Main Stadium (2007) - Construction work to enlarge the Dar es Salaam stadium was completed in June 1969 based on Chinese aid.[49] The Amaan Stadium was constructed with Chinese aid in 1970 and underwent refurbishment again with Chinese assistance, reopening in 2010.[50]
Mandela National Stadium (1997) - The 40,000 seat stadium opened in 1997 as a donation by the Chinese government. Another grant by the Chinese government of 3 million in 2011 funded a facelift for the stadium.[52][53]
National Stadium of The Bahamas at Queen Elizabeth Sports Centre (2012) - The 35 million USD stadium was chosen by the government of the Bahamas from among several choices for a substantial gift from China.[59]
Garfield Sobers Gymnasium (1992) – A 6,000-seat indoor sports facility with a swimming pool and amenities for twelve sports, constructed between 1990 and 1992 byChina State Construction Engineering under a grant of 16 million Barbados dollars from the Chinese government.[60][61]
National Stadium (under construction, 2025–2028) – A new national stadium being built at Waterford, St. Michael, at a total cost of 80 million Barbados dollars through a grant from the People’s Republic of China. The project, undertaken byBeijing Construction Engineering Group, follows the demolition of the old 1970 stadium and will feature a 10,000-seat Phase I with plans to expand to 20,000 seats in Phase II.[62]
National Stadium, built following a breakaway from diplomatic recognition of Taiwan in favor of China by the Costa Rican government in 2007, China spent an estimated 100 million USD to construct the stadium from 2008 to 2011.[63] Local newspaper, theTico Times called the stadium "Costa Rica’s jewel" and the design "an aerodynamic masterpiece".[63]
Windsor Park (2007) - In exchange for severing diplomatic ties with Taiwan in 2004, the government of China donated the 12,000 seat stadium, constructed and designed at a cost of 45 millionEast Caribbean dollars by China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation and Wuhan Architectural and Design Institute along with several Dominican engineers sent to China to join the design team.[64] A local paper covering the opening night described "scenes of raw excitement and drama not seen in Dominica since November 3, 1978 when the island attained political independence from Great Britain...Roseau erupted in a wild frenzy for a moment in time that probably won’t be repeated again in the lifetimes of the thousands gathered to witness it."[64]
National Stadium, is currently under construction inAntiguo Cuscatlán after El Salvador cut ties with Taiwan in 2018 and reestablished ties with China. The stadium's capacity will be 50,000. The announcement was made on 30 December 2021 byNayib Bukele onTwitter. China will spend an estimated 500 million USD to construct the stadium from 2022 to 2025.[65][66]
Queen's Park Stadium (2007) - The hurricane damaged stadium was rebuilt as a 40 million USD gift from China in time for the2007 Cricket World Cup.[67] The gift from China was provided following the switch in diplomatic allegiance from Taiwan to China in 2005 by the Grenadan government.[67] Subsequently theExport-Import Bank of Taiwan sued the government of Grenada for defaulting on a loan, part of which was intended to fund the Queen's Park Stadium.[67]
Sligoville Mini-Stadium (2007), including a 600-seat basketball and netball court; 1,200-seat cricket oval; a 1,500-seat football field; and a 400-metre track circling the football field. The gift from the government of China was constructed by theShanxi Construction Engineering Group Corporation. A site inspection by a journalist from the Jamaica Observer in 2013 found the stadium to be in ruins due to the neglect resulting from a strict policy of not allocating any funds for maintenance.[68]
George Odlum Stadium (2002) - The 9,000 capacity stadium was built with financing by China.[69] After abandoning ties with China and recognizing Taiwan in 2007, the Taiwanese government provided grant money in 2009 for the refurbishment of the facility and installation of a state of the art track, in time for theCarifta Games.[70] In the aftermath of a fire that burned down one of two public hospitals in the country, some of stadium facilities were converted into a fully functional hospital with "two operating rooms, an ER Department, as well as a Medical, Paediatric and a Surgical Ward".[71]
Anthony Nesty Sporthal (1987) - An indoor sports hall built by the Chinese government and paid for through a loan extended from China. The facility is actively used to host sports events, concerts, fairs, and occasional political assemblies for electing thePresident of Suriname.[72]
In 2014, Prime MinisterHun Sen requested that China help construct a stadium for Cambodia in advance of the2023 Southeast Asian Games.[73]: 50 China began buildingMorodok Techo National Stadium in 2017 at a cost of US$169 million and completed it for Cambodia in December 2021.[73]: 50
New Laos National Stadium (2009) - A sports complex with a 25,000 seat main venue and a 2,000 capacity indoor aquatics complex, with an outdoor warm-up pool, a tennis centre with 2,000 seats, six other tennis courts, two indoor stadiums each with a seating for 3,000 and an indoor shooting range with 50 seats. It was built in time for the2009 Southeast Asian Games. In August 2008 the government stated 200 hectares of land in the outskirts of Vientiane was exchanged as part of the financing agreement with the Chinese government.[74]
National Sports Stadium (1958) andBuyant Ukhaa Sport Palace (2011) – The National Sports Stadium in Ulaanbaatar was constructed in 1958 with Chinese aid and was among the first major sports infrastructure projects funded by China during the Cold War. It marked the start of extensive Chinese development assistance to Mongolia and remains the country’s most important sporting venue, hosting the annualNaadam festival. Decades later, the National Wrestling Palace was completed in 2011 with a ¥28 million grant from the Chinese government, providing a modern indoor arena to support traditional Mongolian wrestling and enhance training and competition facilities.[75][76]
Although the stadium was not built by China, separate grants by the Chinese government funded renovation of the Dashrath Stadium in 1999 and 2012. In the 1999, an international-level synthetic track was installed.[78] For the 2012 upgrade a 500 KW generator was installed and repairs took care of the 1200-lux floodlights, scoreboard, speakers and sound system.[78]
Belarusian National Football Stadium (2025) – A 33,000-seat national stadium in Minsk built with Chinese government support and constructed under a general contract by Beijing Urban Construction Group. Opened in June 2025, it is the largest and most modern football venue in Belarus and was gifted as part of China’s foreign aid program.[80]
Telecom Sports Arena (2009) - A 1000-seat sports complex housing netball, volleyball, handball, weightlifting, and squash. Funding for the $14 million facility came from concessional loans provided by the Chinese government.
FSM-China Friendship Sports Center (2002) - A multipurpose gym built from 1999-2002 by the Guangzhou International Economic And Technical Cooperation Company at a cost of 5 million USD was turned over to FSM from the government of China.[81]
Betia Sports Complex (2006) - Construction of the sports complex began in 2002 with a 5.5 million USD grant from the government of China.[83] When Kiribati severed diplomatic ties with China by switching to Taiwan, China suspended work on the partially completed project.[84] Taiwan restarted construction and the complex opened in 2006.[85] The facilities include indoor and outdoor basketball courts, a soccer and football ground and a gymnasium seating more than one thousand.
Wewak Sports Stadium (2010) - A stadium was built at a cost of 19 million Kina, the combined contribution of 12 million Kina in funds from the Chinese government and 7 million Kina contributed by Papua New Guinea.[86]
Apia Park Stadium (1983) - A stadium built as an aid project by China for Samoa to host the 7th South-Pacific Games.[87] When it came time in 2007, for Samoa to once again host the games, the Chinese government provided a grant of 19 million USD to refurbish the facilities, using a team of Chinese engineers with local contractors to do the work.[88][89]
National Stadium (2023) - A stadium was built at a cost of 71 million US dollars, as part of an aid project by China for Solomon Islands to host the17th Pacific Games.[90]
Providence Stadium (2006) – A 15,000-seat cricket venue built with Indian financing, including a US$6 million grant and US$20 million in low-interest loans from the Government of India.[91]
^Emmanuel Barranguet:China the master stadium builder; The Africa Report, 2 July 2010; first published in:The Africa Report’s World Cup 2010, May 2010.
