The only source for information about Stephen is theNew Testament book of the Acts of the Apostles.[5] Stephen is mentioned inActs 6 as one of the Greek-speakingHellenistic Jews selected to administer the daily charitable distribution of food to the Greek-speaking widows.[6]
Stephen is first mentioned in theActs of the Apostles as one of theSeven Deacons, who were appointed by the Apostles to distribute food and charitable aid to poorer members of the community in the early church. According to Orthodox belief, he was the eldest and is therefore called "archdeacon".[8] As another deacon, Nicholas of Antioch, is specifically stated to have been aconvert to Judaism, it may be assumed that Stephen was born Jewish, but nothing more is known about his previous life.[5] The reason for the appointment of the deacons is stated to have been dissatisfaction among Hellenistic Jews that their widows were being slighted in preference to Hebrew ones in the daily distribution of food. Since the name Stephanos isKoine Greek, it has been assumed that he was one of these Hellenistic Jews. Stephen is stated to have been full of faith and theHoly Spirit and to have performed miracles among the people.[9]
Stoning of Saint Stephen, altarpiece of San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, by Jacopo & DomenicoTintoretto
It seems to have been among synagogues of Hellenistic Jews that he performed his teachings and "signs and wonders" since it is said that he aroused the opposition of theSynagogue of the Libertines, and "of theCyrenians, and of theAlexandrians, and of them that were ofCilicia and Asia".[10] Members of these synagogues had challenged Stephen's teachings, but Stephen had bested them in debate. Furious at this humiliation, they suborned false testimony that Stephen had preached blasphemy againstMoses and God. They dragged him to appear before theSanhedrin, the supreme legal court of Jewish elders, accusing him of preaching against theSecond Temple and theTorah.[11] Stephen is said to have been unperturbed, his face looking like "that of an angel".[5]
In a long speech to the Sanhedrin comprising almost the whole ofActs 7, Stephen presents his view of the history of theIsraelites. The God of glory, he says, appeared toAbraham inMesopotamia, thus establishing at the beginning of the speech one of its major themes, that God does not dwell only in one particular building (meaning the Temple).[12] Stephen recounts the stories of thepatriarchs in some depth and goes into even more detail in the case of Moses. God appeared to Moses in the burning bush,[13] and inspired Moses to lead his people out of Egypt. Nevertheless, the Israelites turned to other gods.[14] This establishes the second main theme of Stephen's speech, Israel's disobedience to God.[12] Stephen faced two accusations: that he had declared that Jesus would destroy the Temple in Jerusalem and that he had changed the customs of Moses.Pope Benedict XVI stated in 2012 that Stephen appealed to the Jewish scriptures to prove how the laws of Moses were not subverted by Jesus but were instead being fulfilled.[15] Stephen denounces his listeners[12] as "stiff-necked" people who, just as their ancestors had done, resist the Holy Spirit. "Which of the prophets have not your fathers persecuted? and they have slain them which showed before of the coming of the Just One; of whom ye have been now the betrayers and murderers: who have received the law by the disposition of the angels, and have not kept it."[16]
The account is that the crowd, thus castigated, could contain their anger no longer.[17] However, Stephen looked up and cried, "Behold, I see the heavens opened, and theSon of Man standing on the right hand of God." He said that the recently resurrected Jesus was standing by the side of God.[18][19] The people from the crowd, who threw the first stones,[20][18] laid their coats down so as to be able to do this, at the feet of a young man named Saul (later identified asPaul the Apostle). Stephen prayed that the Lord would receive his spirit and his killers be forgiven, sank to his knees, and "fell asleep".[21] Saul "was consenting unto his death."[22] In the aftermath of Stephen's death, the remaining disciples except for the apostles fled to distant lands, many toAntioch.[23][24]
The exact site of Stephen's stoning is not mentioned in Acts; instead there are two different traditions. One, claimed by noted French archaeologistsLouis-Hugues Vincent (1872–1960) andFélix-Marie Abel (1878–1953) to beancient, places the event at Jerusalem's northern gate, while another one, dated by Vincent and Abel to theMiddle Ages and no earlier than the 12th century, locates it at the eastern gate.[25]
Of the numerous speeches in Acts of the Apostles, Stephen's speech to the Sanhedrin is the longest.[26] To the objection that it seems unlikely that such a long speech could be reproduced in the text of Acts exactly as it was delivered, some Biblical scholars have replied that Stephen's speech shows a distinctive personality behind it.[12]
There are at least five places where Stephen's re-telling of the stories of Israelite history diverges from the scriptures where these stories originated; for example, Stephen says that Jacob's tomb was inShechem,[27] but Genesis 50:13[28] says Jacob's body was carried and buried in a cave in Machpelah atHebron.[22][12] Some theologians argue that these may not be discrepancies, but rather a condensing of historical events for people who were already familiar with them.[29] That Jacob's body was carried to a final resting place in Shechem is not recorded in Genesis, though it does not exclude the possibility that his bones were transferred to Shechem for a final burial place, as was done with the bones of Jacob's son Joseph, as described inJoshua 24:32 Other scholars consider these and other discrepancies as errors. Still others interpret them as deliberate choices making theological points.[26] Another possibility is that the discrepancies come from an ancient Jewish tradition which was not included in the scriptures or may have been popular among people of Jerusalem who were not scribes.[30]
Numerous parallels between the accounts of Stephen in Acts and theJesus of theGospels – they both perform miracles, they are both tried by the Sanhedrin, they both pray for forgiveness for their killers, for instance – have led to suspicions that the author of Acts has emphasised – in order to show the recipient that people become holy when they follow the example of Christ – or invented some (or all) of these.[18]
The criticism of traditional Jewish belief and practice in Stephen's speech is very strong – when he says God does not live in a dwelling "made by human hands", referring to the Temple, he is using an expression often employed by Biblical texts to describe idols.[12]
Some people have laid the charge of anti-Judaism against the speech, for instance the priest and scholar of comparative religionS. G. F. Brandon, who states: "The anti-Jewish polemic of this speech reflects the attitude of the author of Acts."[31]
Friedrich Justus Knecht lists the similarities of the martyrdom of Stephen to Jesus' death on the cross:
1. Our Blessed Lord was sentenced to death on the charge of blasphemy, because He had affirmed on oath: "I am the Son of the living God, and hereafter you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of God". In the same manner Stephen was stoned on the assumption that he was a blasphemer, and because he professed his belief in the Divinity of Jesus, and said: "I see heaven open, and Jesus standing at the right hand of God". 2. Both our Blessed Lord and St. Stephen were treated as outcasts, and put to death outside the city. 3. Both, when dying, prayed for their enemies: "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do". – "Lay not this sin to their charge". 4. Both, before dying, commended their souls to God: "Father, into Thy hands I commend My spirit". – "Lord Jesus, receive my soul!”[32]
Reputed site of the stoning of Stephen, Greek Orthodox Church of St Stephen,Kidron Valley, Jerusalem
Acts 8:2[33] says "devout men carried Stephen to his burial, and made great lamentation over him," but the location where he was buried is not specified.
In 415, a priest named Lucian purportedly had a dream that revealed the location of Stephen's remains atBeit Jimal. After that, therelics of the protomartyr were taken in procession to theChurch of Hagia Sion on 26 December 415, making it the date for the feast of Saint Stephen. The recovery of the relics were described in a letter written byAvitus of Braga,[34] who was involved in a plot to bring some of those relics toBraga via the historian and theologianPaulus Orosius.[35] In 439, the relics were translated to a new church north of the Damascus Gate built by the empressAelia Eudocia in honor of Saint Stephen. This church was destroyed in the 12th century. A 20th-century French Catholic church, Saint-Étienne, was built in its place, while another, the Greek Orthodox Church of St Stephen, was built outside the eastern gate of the city,[36] which a second tradition holds to be the site of his martyrdom, rather than the northern location outside Damascus Gate (for the two traditions seehere).
TheCrusaders initially called the main northern gate of Jerusalem "Saint Stephen's Gate" (in Latin,Porta Sancti Stephani), highlighting its proximity to the site of martyrdom of Saint Stephen, marked by the church and monastery built by Empress Eudocia.[37] A different tradition is documented from the end of the Crusader period, after the disappearance of the Byzantine church: as Christian pilgrims were prohibited from approaching the militarily exposed northern city wall, the name "Saint Stephen's Gate" was transferred to the still accessible eastern gate, which bears this name until this day.[38]
The discovery of the relics of Stephen in theGolden Legend (1497)
The relics of the protomartyr were later translated to Rome byPope Pelagius II during the construction of thebasilica ofSan Lorenzo fuori le Mura. They were interred alongside the relics ofSaint Lawrence, whose tomb is enshrined within the church. According to theGolden Legend, the relics of Lawrence moved miraculously to one side to make room for those of Stephen.[39]
TheImperial Regalia of theHoly Roman Empire includes a relic known asSt. Stephen's Purse which is an elaborate gold and jewel-encrusted box believed to contain soil soaked with the blood of St. Stephen. The reliquary is likely a 9th-century creation.
In his bookThe City of God,Augustine of Hippo describes the many miracles that occurred when part of the relics of Saint Stephen were brought to Africa.[40]
The relics of the protomartyr were also in India Kerala brought from Congregation Mount Athos, Greece to St. Stephens Orthodox Cathedral Pilgrim Center, Kudassanad, Kerala, India
InWestern Christianity, 26 December is called "Saint Stephen's Day", the "Feast of Stephen" mentioned in the EnglishChristmas carol "Good King Wenceslas". It is apublic holiday in many nations that are of historic Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran traditions, including Austria, Croatia, theCzech Republic, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Poland, Italy, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Catalonia and the Balearic Isles.
In the current norms for theliturgy of the RomanCatholic Church, the feast is celebrated at theEucharist, but, for theLiturgy of the Hours, is restricted to the Hours during the day, withEvening Prayer being reserved to the celebration of theOctave ofChristmas. Historically, the "Invention of the Relics of Saint Stephen" (i.e., their reputed discovery) was commemorated on 3 August.[41] The feasts of both 26 December and 3 August have been used in dating clauses in historical documents produced in England.[42] Stephen isremembered in theChurch of England with aFestival on26 December.[43]
In theEastern Orthodox Church, thoseEastern Catholic Churches which follow theByzantine Rite, and in Oriental Orthodox Churches (e.g., Coptic, Syrian, Malankara) Saint Stephen's feast day is celebrated on 27 December, due to the celebration of theSynaxis of theTheotokos on 26 December. This also has the effect of pushing the Feast of theHoly Innocents to 29 December. This day is also called the "Third Day of the Nativity" because it is the third day of the Christmas season.
Some Orthodox churches, particularly in the west, follow a modified Julian calendar that places date names identically with the standard Gregorian calendar of widespread civil usage. In those churches, then, the date the feast is observed is generally known as 27 December. However, other Orthodox churches, including the Oriental Orthodox, continue to use the original Julian calendar. Throughout the 21st century, 27 December Julian will continue to fall on 9 January in the Gregorian calendar, and that is the date on which they observe the feast.
In the Armenian Apostolic and Armenian Catholic Churches, Saint Stephen's Day falls on 25 December – the day on which the feast of the Nativity of Jesus (Christmas) falls in all other churches. This is because the Armenian churches maintain the decree of Constantine, which stipulated that the Nativity and Theophany of Jesus were to be celebrated on 6 January. In dioceses of the Armenian Church which use the Julian Calendar, Saint Stephen's Day falls on 7 January and Nativity/Theophany on 19 January (for the remainder of the 21st century Julian).
In the eucharistic celebration on this feast day, it is traditional for all deacons serving at the altar to wear a liturgical crown (Armenian: խոյրkhooyr), which is one of the vestments worn only by priests on all other days of the year, the crown being in this instance a symbol of martyrdom.
Many churches and other places commemorate Stephen. Among the most notable are the two sites in Jerusalem held by different traditions to be the place of his martyrdom, theSalesian monastery ofBeit Jimal inIsrael held to be the place where his remains were miraculously found, and the church ofSan Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome, where the saint's remains are said to be buried.
Important churches and sites dedicated to Saint Stephen are:
Stephansdom,Vienna,Austria – the Cathedral of St. Stephen, founded 1147 and seat of theArchbishop of Vienna. Symbol of the city of Vienna and of Austria, has the tallest spire in Austria and is the "centerpiece of Vienna"[49]
St. Stephen's Basilica, Jerusalem, in FrenchSaint-Étienne, at the traditional place of St Stephen's martyrdom; modern church over ruins of Byzantine 5th-century predecessor
St. Stephan's Gate, the Christian name of one of the city gates of theOld City ofJerusalem, also known as the "Lions' Gate". A post-Byzantine tradition holds that Stephen's stoning occurred there, while an older tradition connects the martyrdom to the Damascus Gate, where achurch and large monastic complex dedicated to Saint Stephen was built in the 5th century (seeabove). A modern Greek Orthodox Church of Saint Stephen stands a short distance from Lions' Gate
St. Stephen's Orthodox Cathedral Pilgrim Centre, Kudassanad, Pandalam, Kerala First Pilgrim Centre in India where Holy Relics of Saint Stephen is situated.
St. Stephen's Church, Thope, is one of the parishes of the first diocese of India, Kollam. It is 216 years old and the patron of this parish is St. Stephen, the first Martyr of the Church and it is situated beside Kollam Beach
Rome –Santo Stefano Rotondo, a church built under the commission of Constantine I on the ruins of the Caelian Hill of Rome. Built in the 5th century, it is the first church in Rome to have a circular floor plan, instead of the traditionalGreek orLatin cross designs[51]
San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, where Saint Stephen is said to be interred together with Saint Lawrence in the crypt, under the high altar
St Stephen's Chapel in thePalace of Westminster, London, was originally built in the reign ofHenry III of England; it became the first site of the debating chamber of theBritish House of Commons. The tower that housesBig Ben, which was properly called The Clock Tower, was referred to as St Stephen's Tower by Victorian journalists.[52] The Clock Tower was renamed Elizabeth Tower to commemorate theDiamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2013. St Stephen's Tower is the smaller tower in the middle of the building
St Stephen's, Sneinton, Nottingham – has strong links to William Booth and The Salvation Army. The parents of D.H. Lawrence married in the church on 27 December 1875
St Stephen's Walbrook, City of London – first recorded in C11 and rebuilt to Wren's design after the Great Fire
St Stephen's Church, Saint Vincent Street, Edinburgh, Scotland. It was built in 1827–1828, to a design by architect William Henry Playfair (1789–1857).[53]
In the Catholic Church, theGuild of St. Stephen is an international association ofaltar servers whose aim is to promote "highest standards of serving at the Church's liturgy".[61]
Saint Stephen is one of the sculptures on the side of theOrsanmichele inFlorence. Saint Stephen is the patron saint of thewool guild.
In the 14th −16th century, thebishopric of Halberstadt issuedone-sided stamped silver coins. The obverse showed the face of St. Stephen in chief over two large rocks in base and a martyr's palm frond (palmwedel) on the left side. The halo around St. Stephen's head and the two rocks being mistaken for hands made it look like he was lying in state inside of a coffin (sarg). Thus they were nicknamedsargpfennig ("coffin pennies").
Saint Stephen is featured as the eponymous subject of asong by theGrateful Dead.
Stephen Ministry is inspired by St. Stephen. This ministry provides high-quality, one-to-one, Christ-centered care to people in the congregation and the community experiencing life difficulties.
^abcSouvay, Charles."Saint Stephen".Catholic Encyclopedia,1912. New Advent. Retrieved3 April 2013.
^Mal Couch,A Bible Handbook to the Acts of the Apostles, 2003, p. 246. "Stephen is distinguished as "a man full of faith and of the Holy Spirit" (Acts 6:5). Stephen and the other men were Hellenistic Jews whose native language was Greek. He had lived with Gentiles in other parts of the Roman Empire."
^Unger, Merrill F. (2006) [1957]. Harrison, R. K. (ed.).The New Unger's Bible Dictionary. Chicago: Moody Publishers. Antioch Ariana Grande Yuh.ISBN978-0-8024-9066-7.
^Hannah M. Cotton; Leah Di Segni; Werner Eck; et al., eds. (2012).Jerusalem, Part 2: 705–1120. Corpus Inscriptionum Iudeae/Palaestinae. Vol. 1. De Gruyter. p. 275.ISBN978-3-11-025188-3. Retrieved31 August 2016..... St. Stephen's Gate (Lions' gate; Bab Sitti Mariam). The gate owes its name to a tradition according to which Stephen the Deacon, the first martyr, was stoned on this spot. At the beginning of the 20 c. the Greek Orthodox Patriarchy built a church dedicated to the Protomartyr in their property in front of the gate, in an endeavour to pinpoint the tradition of the site, which was falling into oblivion following the construction of the Dominican church and monastery on the site of the Eudocian church of St. Stephen north ofDamascus Gate. The Greek builders went so far as to maintain that, in digging the foundations of the new church, they had found a broken lintel with an engraved invocation to Saint Stephen, but their claim, accepted by Macalister and Vailhé, was promptly disproved by Vincent, who was able to show that the lintel came in fact from Beersheba. Vincent and Abel maintained that the tradition about Stephen's stoning at the eastern gate of Jerusalem was not earlier than the 12 c., while the tradition pointing to the northern gate was ancient. .... J. Milik .... suggested that all the tombstones discovered in this area belonged to the cemetery of the Probatica.
^Balge, Richard (2016).The People's Bible: Acts. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House. p. 77.ISBN978-0-8100-1190-8.
^Marian Wolniewicz as the translator of the Book of Acts from: The Millennium Holy Bible; Warsaw, 1980
^Brandon, S. G. F. (1967).Jesus and the Zealots: A Study of the Political Factor in Primitive Christianity. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 158.ISBN978-0-684-31010-7.
^The standard edition of theRevelatio Sancti Stephani and theEpistula Aviti is that of S. Vanderlinden inRevue des Etudes Byzantines4 (1946:178-217).
^Wace, Henry; Piercy, William Coleman, eds. (2014).A dictionary of early Christian biography: and literature to the end of the sixth century A.D. ; with an account of the principal sects and heresies. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publ. pp. 1263–1264.ISBN978-1-61970-269-1.
^"St Stephen Church". Ministry of Tourism, Government of Israel. Retrieved3 April 2013.
^Jerome Murphy-O'Connor (2008).The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700. Oxford Archaeological Guides. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 21.ISBN978-0-19-923666-4. Retrieved2 March 2018.The local guides simply moved to the Kidron valley certain holy places, notably the church of Saint Stephen, which in reality were north of the city, and business went on as before.
^Oxford Dictionary of Saints, ed. David Hugh Farmer, corr. ed. (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1979), p. 361.ISBN0198691203
^Handbook of dates for students of British history, ed.C. R. Cheney. New, rev. ed. (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 59, 85.ISBN0521770955
^"The Calendar".The Church of England. Retrieved27 March 2021.
_-_BEIC_IE4411199.jpg)
