Spondylus (Rimaespondylus)Damarco, 2015 (unavailable name: no type species designated)
Spondylus (Sponvola)Iredale, 1939
SponvolaIredale, 1939
Spondylus is agenus ofbivalvemolluscs, the only genus in thefamilySpondylidae and subfamilySpondylinae.[2] They are known in English asspiny oysters orthorny oysters (although they are not, in fact,true oysters, but are related toscallops).
The many species ofSpondylus vary considerably in appearance. They are grouped in the same superfamily as thescallops.
They are not closely related to true oysters (familyOstreidae); however, they do share some habits such as cementing themselves to rocks rather than attaching themselves by abyssus. The two halves of their shells are joined with a ball-and-socket type of hinge, rather than with a toothed hinge as is more common in other bivalves. They also still retain vestigial anterior and posteriorauricles ("ears", triangular shell flaps) along the hinge line, a characteristic feature of scallops, although not of oysters.
As is the case in all scallops,Spondylus spp. have multiple eyes around the edges of theirmantle, and they have relatively well-developednervous systems. Their nervousganglia are concentrated in thevisceral region, with recognisableoptic lobes connected to the eyes.
The genusSpondylus appeared in theMesozoic era, and is known in the fossil records from theTriassic Cassian beds in Italy (235 to 232 million years ago) onward. Approximately 40 extinct species are known.[3]
Fossil valve ofSpondylus crassicosta from thePliocene of Italy
Fossils of these molluscs may be found in fossiliferous marine strata all over the world. For example, they are present inCretaceous rocks in theFort Worth Formation ofTexas, and in the Trent River Formation ofVancouver Island, as well as in other parts of North America.[4][5]
Spondylus arefilter feeders. The adults live cemented to hard substrates, a characteristic they share, by convergent evolution, withtrue oysters andjewel boxes. Like the latter, they are protected by spines and a layer ofepibionts and, like the former, they can producepearls.[6] The type of substrate they use depends on the species: many only attach to coral, and the largest diversity of species is found in tropical coral reefs; others (particularlyS. spinosus), however, easily adapt to manufactured structures such as boats, pipes, and docks thereby becoming significantinvasive species. Often other species are found attached to the shells of other species, perhaps the most common being found attached to the genusMalleus.
Archaeological evidence indicates that people inNeolithicEurope were trading the shells ofS. gaederopus to make bangles and other ornaments throughout much of the Neolithic period.[7] The main period of Neolithic use appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC.[7] The shells were harvested from theAegean Sea, but were transported far into the center of the continent. In theLBK andLengyel cultures,Spondylus shells from the Aegean Sea were worked into bracelets and belt buckles. Over time styles changed with the middle Neolithic favouring generally larger barrel-shaped beads and the late Neolithic smaller favoring flatter and disk-shaped beads.[7] Significant finds of jewelry made fromSpondylus shells were made at theVarna Necropolis. During the late Neolithic the use ofSpondylus in grave goods appears to have been limited to women and children.[7]
Pre-Columbian clothing made ofSpondylus shell beads, La Florida archaeological site (Quito, Ecuador)
S. crassisquama is found off the coast ofColombia andEcuador and has been important toAndean peoples sincepre-Columbian times, serving as both an offering to the fertility goddessPachamama and as currency.[8] In fact, much like in Europe, the trade inSpondylus shells also reached far and wide, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-dayMexico and as far south as the centralAndes.[9] TheMoche people of ancientPeru regarded the sea and animals as sacred; they usedSpondylus shells in their art and depictedSpondylus in effigy pots.[10] Spondylus also were harvested from theGulf of California and traded to tribes throughout Mexico and the American Southwest.
Spondylus shells were the driving factor of trade within the Central Andes and were used in a similar manner to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, red pepper, and cotton cloth.[11]
The use ofSpondylus shells is what led to an economy of sorts in the Central Andes and led to the development of a merchant class, "mercardes", in different cultures within the Central Andes.[12] This caused the development of different styles of trade that went through evolutionary changes throughout pre-Columbian times. These are reciprocity (home based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line trade, central place redistribution, central place market exchange, emissary trading, and port of trade.[13] These modes of trade dictate the way that theSpondylus shells are traded, as well as who is benefiting the most from the trades. Modes such as central place redistribution require the entity that is the central place to be the one that gains the most benefit from the trade, and modes such as emissary trading and port of trade are the modes that started the "mercardes" class within the Central Andes.
The value ofSpondylus shells in the Central Andes stems from supply and demand. There was a great demand forSpondylus shells due to the "fetishistic needs to the south".[14]
Even today, there are collectors ofSpondylus shells, and a commercial market exists for them. Additionally, some species (especiallyS. americanus) sometimes are found in the saltwater aquariums.
S. limbatus was commonly ground for mortar in Central America, giving raise to its junior synonym, "S. calcifer".
Spondylus is fished primarily for its adductor muscle, or "callus", which is a high-value foodstuff.[15] Some Mediterranean species are edible and are commonly consumed, withS. gaederopus in particular being popular inSardinia. Tropical species, however, tend to bioaccumulatesaxitoxin.[16]The Romans ate Spondylus species. Macrobius in Saturnalia III.13 describes a dinner party in 63 BCE in which there were two courses ofSpondylus.
In addition to its significance in thepre-Columbian times,Spondylus crassiquama was also an important part ofAztec culture.
Double-headed serpent made ofSpondylus shell
Spondylus held immense religious significance inpre-ColumbianAztec culture and is also a great representation of the relationship between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec groups and peoples,Spondylus was a gift from the deities to be celebrated. CertainSpondylus groups were formed as a result of when and where they may be found seasonally and tend to connect a particular group ofSpondylus to specific religious symbols such as the Fertility goddess, the Moon goddess, the Sun god, and the mountain spirits. This led to certain groups ofSpondylus being associated with seasonal weather events such as heavy rains or increases in sea temperature along the coast, as those events were closely associated with particular deities or spirits inAztec culture.
Mask made ofSpondylus and other materials
Spondylus had several key uses inpre-Columbian Aztec history, most predominantly its importance in jewelry, art, and sculpture. Another use ofSpondylus, that had to be executed with extreme detail and precision, was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and other items individuals would use to express how important or wealthy they were in life and death. Having the most beautifulSpondylus pieces, meant that individual had immense power within the community.[17]
Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions,[18] mostly due to the fact that identification is traditionally based on the shell alone, and this is highly variable. To add to this, while some shallow-water species are extremely common, at least two deep-water species are known from a single specimen, while a third (S. gravis)[19] was only identified in the late 1900s. At least another common species (S. regius) has a different shell when it grows in deep water.[20]
Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793) from Tenerife, Canary IslandsPacific thorny oyster,S. crassisquama Lamarck, 1819, from theGulf of California, MexicoThe interior of two fossil valves ofSpondylus from thePliocene ofCyprusCat's tongue oyster,Spondylus linguaefelis Sowerby, 1847, fromHawaiiA view of the colorfulmantle edges of a live thorny oyster fromEast Timor: The eyes may be seen on the fringe between the mantle and the shell. A fossilSpondylus gaederopus from thePliocene ofCyprusSpondylus visayensis
^Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentius Salvius: Holmiae. ii, 824 pp., available online athttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/3/mode/1up
^abBieler R, Bouchet P, Gofas S, Marshall B, Rosenberg G, La Perna R, Neubauer TA, Sartori AF, Schneider S, Vos C, ter Poorten JJ, Taylor J, Dijkstra H, Finn J, Bank R, Neubert E, Moretzsohn F, Faber M, Houart R, Picton B, Garcia-Alvarez O (eds.)."Spondylus".MolluscaBase.World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved2025-03-07.
^Carter, Benjamin. "Spondylus in South American Prehistory" inSpondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches. Ed. Fotis Ifantidis and Marianna Nikolaidou. BAR International Series 2216. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011: 63–89.
^Shimada, Izumi. "Evolution of Andean Diversity: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E.–C.E. 600). The Cambridge History of the Native People of the Americas. Vol. III, pt. 1. Ed. Frank Salomon & Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999: 350–517, esp. "Mesoamerican-Northwest South American Connections", pp. 430–436.
^Waves of Influence: Pacific Maritime Networks Connecting Mexico, Central America, and Northwestern South America.
^Lodeiros, César; Soria, Gaspar; Valentich-Scott, Paul; Munguía-Vega, Adrián; Cabrera, Jonathan Santana; Cudney-Bueno, Richard; Loor, Alfredo; Márquez, Adrian; Sonnenholzner, Stanislaus (August 2016)."Spondylids of Eastern Pacific Ocean"(PDF).Journal of Shellfish Research.35 (2):279–293.doi:10.2983/035.035.0203.
^Montojo, U.M.; Sakamoto, S.; Cayme, M.F.; Gatdula, N.C.; Furio, E.F.; Relox, J.R.; Kodama, M. (2006). "Remarkable difference in toxin accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins among bivalve species exposed to Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum bloom in Masinloc bay, Philippines".Toxicon.48 (1):85–92.doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.04.014.PMID16777162.S2CID26090723.
^WoRMS Editorial Board (2017)."Taxonomy".Spondylus (Data Set). VLIZ.doi:10.14284/170. Retrieved19 February 2018 – via World Register of Marine Species.
^Lamprell, Kevin L. (May 1998). "Recent Spondylus species from the Middle East and adjacent regions, with the description of two new species".Vita Marina.45 (1–2): 58.
^Roemer, F. (1849). Texas : mit besonderer Rücksicht auf deutsche Auswanderung und die physischen Verhältnisse des Landes nach eigener Beobachtung. A. Marcus
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