| Spiritual | |
|---|---|
| Stylistic origins | |
| Cultural origins | African Americans |
| Derivative forms | |
| Fusion genres | |
| CCM | |
Spirituals (also known asNegro spirituals,African American spirituals,[1]Black spirituals, orspiritual music) is agenre ofChristian music that is associated withAfrican Americans,[2][3][4] which merged varied African cultural influences with the experiences of being held in bondage in slavery, at first during thetransatlantic slave trade[5] and for centuries afterwards, through the domestic slave trade. Spirituals incorporate the "sing songs",work songs, and plantation songs that evolved into the blues and gospel songs in church.[6] In the nineteenth century, the word "spirituals" referred to all these subcategories of folk songs.[7][8][9] While they were often rooted in biblical stories, they also described the extreme hardships endured by African Americans who were enslaved from the 17th century until the 1860s, theemancipation altering mainly the nature (but not continuation) of slavery for many.[10] Many new derivative music genres such as theblues emerged from the spirituals songcraft.[11] These songs were used to share coded messages, unite people, express feelings and emotions, and to keep their culture alive throughout the generations. They eventually were performed in churches, schools, and concerts. This form of African-American heritage influenced music around the world.
Beyond their musical significance, spirituals played a crucial role in encouraging and uplifting African Americans throughout history. These songs provided hope, comfort, and resilience during the darkest periods of slavery and segregation. Singing together allowed enslaved individuals to build solidarity, maintain a sense of community, and draw strength from shared struggles. Spirituals often incorporated biblical themes of deliverance and liberation, resonating with listeners who longed for freedom and justice. By turning to stories such as the Exodus, African Americans found inspiration and a spiritual framework to endure hardship and keep faith in the possibility of a better future.
The tradition of spirituals began in the early 1700s among enslaved Africans in the American South, particularly on plantations where communal singing was both a survival strategy and a subtle form of resistance. This genre emerged from the blending of African musical traditions with Christian hymns introduced by missionaries and slaveholders. Spirituals first flourished in secret worship meetings, also known as“hush harbors,” where enslaved people gathered away from the eyes of overseers. Over time, spirituals spread to camp meetings and revivals, becoming central to African American religious and cultural expression. Through these songs, generations found the encouragement and unity needed to persevere and eventually challenge the institution of slavery.[1]
Not only did African Americans have to mask their singing, they also had to worship in secret. The “invisible church” refers to the secret religious gatherings formed by enslaved African Americans when they were denied the freedom to worship openly or express their own spiritual practices. These hidden meetings took place in remote areas such as woods, cabins, or secluded clearings and allowed enslaved people to combine Christian teachings with African traditions in ways that were not permitted under the watchful eyes of enslavers. Within these gatherings, participants could pray, sing, and testify without fear of punishment, creating a spiritual community rooted in shared struggle and hope. The musical practices that developed in theinvisible church—especiallycall-and-response singing,ring shouts, and improvised spirituals—became essential foundations of African American sacred music. These songs carried layered meanings, offering both religious comfort and coded messages of resistance or escape. The invisible church ultimately provided emotional strength, cultural preservation, and a sense of collective identity, shaping African American musical and religious life for generations.[12]
Prior to the end of theUS Civil War and emancipation, spirituals were originally an oral tradition passed from one slave generation to the next. Biblical stories were memorized then translated into song. Following emancipation, the lyrics of spirituals were published in printed form. Ensembles such as theFisk Jubilee Singers—established in 1871—popularized spirituals, bringing them to a wider, even international, audience.
At first, major recording studios were only recording white musicians performing spirituals and their derivatives. That changed withMamie Smith's commercial success in 1920.[13] Starting in the 1920s, the commercial recording industry increased the audience for the spirituals and their derivatives.
Black composersHarry Burleigh andR. Nathaniel Dett created a "new repertoire for the concert stage" by applying their Western classical education to the spirituals.[14] While the spirituals were created by a "circumscribed community of people in bondage", over time they became known as the first "signature" music of the United States.[15]
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians—one of the largest reference works on music and musicians[16]: 284–290 —itemized and described "spiritual" in their electronic resource,Grove Music Online—an important part ofOxford Music Online, as a "type of sacred song created by and for African Americans that originated in oral tradition. Although its exact provenance is unknown, spirituals were identifiable as a genre by the early 19th century."[3] They used the term without the descriptor, "African American".
The term "Negro spirituals" is a 19th-century word "used for songs with religious texts created by African Enslaved in America".[7] The first published book of slave songs referred to them as "spirituals".[17]
Inmusicology andethnomusicology in the 1990s, the single term "spirituals" is used to describe "The Spirituals Project".[18]
The US Library of Congress uses the phrase "African American Spirituals", for the numbered and itemized entry.[19] In the introductory phrase, the singular form is used without the adjective "African American." Throughout the encyclopedic entry the singular and plural form of the term, is used without the "African American" descriptor. The LOC introductory sentence says, "A spiritual is a type of religious folksong that is most closely associated with the enslavement of African people in the American South. The songs proliferated in the last few decades of the eighteenth century leading up to the abolishment of legalized slavery in the 1860s. The African American spiritual (also called the Negro Spiritual) constitutes one of the largest and most significant forms of American folksong."[19]
Thetransatlantic slave trade is described by aUnited Nations report as the largest forced migration in recorded human history.[5] As a direct result of the transatlantic slave trade, the greatest movement of Africans was to the Americas—with 96 percent of the captives from the African coasts arriving on cramped slave ships at ports in South America and the Caribbean Islands. From 1501 to 1830, four Africans crossed the Atlantic for every one European, making the demographics of the Americas in that era more of an extension of the African diaspora than a European one. The legacy of this migration is still evident today, with large populations of people of African descent living throughout the Americas. Millions more remained enslaved in Africa, where slavery was a complex and deeply-rooted part of culture going back centuries before widespread European presence on the continent.[20][21][22][23][24][25]
From 1501 through 1867, approximately "12.5 million Africans" from "almost every country with an Atlantic coastline" were kidnapped and coerced into slavery, according to the 2015Atlas based on about 35,000 slaving voyages.[4] Roughly 6% of all enslaved Africans transported via the trans-Atlantic slave trade arrived in theUnited States, both before and after thecolonial era; the remainder went to Brazil, the West Indies or other regions. The majority of these Africans came from theWest African slave coast.[26] Other sources estimate theIslamic slave trade also kidnapped similar numbers of Africans, with between 8 million and 17 million individuals taken from Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along theTrans-Saharan trade routes.[27][28][29][30][31]
ThePortuguese Empire transported the first African enslaved peoples to the New World in the 1560s, and until the 1700sMexico was the primary destination for those captives under Spanish control.[32] The first African enslaved people in what is now the United States arrived in 1526, making landfall in present-dayWinyah Bay,South Carolina in a short-lived colony calledSan Miguel de Gualdape under control of theSpanish Empire. They were also the first enslaved Africans in North Americas to stage aslave rebellion.[33] In 1619, the first slave ship had carried twenty people from the west central Africankingdom of Kongo—to a life of enslavement in what is now Mexico.[34]The Kingdom of Kongo, at that time stretched over an area of 60,000 miles (97,000 km) in the watershed of theCongo River—the second longest river in Africa—and had a population of 2.5 million—was one of the largest African kingdoms. For a brief period, KingJoão I of Kongo, who reigned from 1470 to 1509, had voluntarily converted toCatholicism, and for close to three centuries—from 1491 to 1750—the kingdom of Kongo had practiced Christianity and was an "independent [and] cosmopolitan realm."[35][36] The descendants of the rice-plantation enslavedGullah people—whose country of origin isSierra Leone—were unique because they had been much more isolated on the islands off the coast of South Carolina. Gullah spirituals are sung in a Creole language that was influenced byAfrican American Vernacular English with the majority of African words coming from theAkan,Yoruba andIgbo.[37][38] The institution of slavery in the United States ended with the conclusion of theUS Civil War in 1865.
Thedomestic slave trade that emerged after theUnited States Congress outlawed the international slave trade in 1808 and lasted until the U.S. Civil War destroyed generations of African American families.[26] Slavery in the United States differed from the institution in other regions of the Americas, such as theWest Indies,Dutch Guiana andBrazil. In the U.S., the enslaved had higher rates of survival and thus there was a "high and sustained natural increase in the slave population for a more than a century and a half—with numbers nearly tripling by the end of the domestic slave trade in the 1860s." During that period, "approximately 1.2 million men, women, and children, the vast majority of whom were born in America," were displaced—spouses were separated from one another, and parents were separated from their children.[26] By 1850, most enslaved African Americans were "third-, fourth-, or fifth-generation Americans."[26] In the 1800s, the majority of enslaved people in theBritish West Indies andBrazil had been born in Africa, whereas in the United States, they were "generations removed from Africa."[26]
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In his 1845Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, an essay on abolition and a memoire,Frederick Douglass (1818–1895)—a greatorator—described slave songs as telling a "tale which was then altogether beyond my feeble comprehension; they were tones, loud, long and deep, breathing the prayer and complaint of souls boiling over with the bitterest anguish. Every tone was a testimony against slavery, and a prayer to God for deliverance from chains… Those songs still follow me, to deepen my hatred of slavery, and quicken my sympathies for my brethren in bonds."[39] HisNarrative, which is the most famous of the stories written by former enslaved at that time, is one of the most influential pieces of literature that acted as a catalyst in the early years of the American abolitionist movement, according to theOCLC entry. Slave songs were called "Sorrow songs" byW.E.B. Du Bois in his 1903 book,The Souls of Black Folk.[40][41]
Hansonia Caldwell, the author ofAfrican American music, spirituals: the fundamental communal music of Black Americans[42] andAfrican American music: a chronology : 1619–1995,[43] said that spirituals "sustained Africans when they were enslaved."[6] She described them as "code songs" that "would announce meetings, as in "Steal Away", and describe the path for running away, as in "Follow the Drinkin' Gourd". "Go Down Moses" referred toHarriet Tubman – that was her nickname—so that when they heard that song, they knew she was coming to the area...I often call the spiritual an omnibus term, because there are lots of different [subcategories] under it. They used to sing songs as they worked in the fields. In the church, it evolved into the gospel song. In the fields, it became the blues."[6] Hansonia Caldwell, who was a professor of music atCalifornia State University, Dominguez Hills (CSUDH) from 1972 to 2011, also oversaw an Archive of Sacred Music at CSUDH—an extensive collection of music, books, periodicals, documents, audio & visual materials, and oral histories."[6]
"The African American spiritual (also called the Negro Spiritual) constitutes one of the largest and most significant forms of American folksong," according to a Library of Congress 2016 article.[44][45]
Spirituals were originally oral, but by 1867 the first compilation, entitled "Slave Songbook", was published.[17] In the book's preface, one of the co-compilers, William Francis Allen, traced the "development of Negro Spirituals and cultural connections to Africa."[46] The 1867 publication included spirituals that were well-known and regularly sung in American churches but whose origins in plantations, had not been acknowledged.[17] Allen wrote that, it was almost impossible to convey the spirituals in print because of the inimitable quality of African American voices with its "intonations and delicate variations", where not "even one singer" can be "reproduced on paper". Allen described the complexity of songs such as "I can't stay behind, my Lord", or "Turn, sinner, turn O!" which have a "complicated shout" where there are no singing parts, and no two singers "appear to be singing the same thing." The lead "singer starts the words of each verse, often improvising, and the others, who "base" him, as it is called, strike in with the refrain, or even join in the solo, when the words are familiar."[17][47]
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In their 1925 book,The Books of American Negro Spirituals,James Weldon Johnson andGrace Nail Johnson said that spirituals, which are "purely and solely the creation" of African Americans, represent "America's only type of folk music...When it came to the use of words, the maker of the song was struggling under his limitations in language and, perhaps, also under a misconstruction or misapprehension of the facts in his source of material, generally the Bible."[2] The couple were active during theHarlem RenaissanceJames Weldon Johnson was the leader of theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Arthur C. Jones, a professor in the Musicology, Ethnomusicology and Theory Department at the Lamont School of Music at theUniversity of Denver, founded "The Spirituals Project" to preserve and revitalize the "music and teachings of the sacred folk songs called spirituals," "created and first sung by African Americans in slavery".[18] Spirituals were created by a "circumscribed community of people in bondage", over time they became known as the first "signature" music of the United States.[15] Forbidden to speak their native languages, they generally converted to Christianity. With narrow vocabularies, they used the words they did know to translate biblical information and facts from their other sources into song.[2]
J.H. Kwabena Nketia (1921–2019), described by theNew York Times in 2019 as a "pre-eminent scholar of African music",[48] said in 1973 that there is an important, interdependent, dynamic, and "unbroken conceptual relationship between African and African American music".[11]: 7–15 [49]
Enslaved African Americans "in the plantation South drew on native rhythms and their African heritage."[50] According to a May 2012PBS interview, "spirituals were religious folks songs, often rooted in biblical stories, woven together, sung, and passed along from one slave generation to another".[51][Notes 1][Notes 2][Notes 3]
According to Walter Pitts' 1996 bookOld Ship of Zion, spirituals are a musical form that is indigenous and specific to the religious experience of African slaves and their descendants in the United States. Pitts said that they were a result of the interaction of music and religion from Africa with music and religion of European origin.[52]: 74
In a May 2012 PBS interview,Uzee Brown Jr. said that spirituals were the "survival tools for the African slave".[51] Brown said that while other similarly oppressed cultures were "virtually wiped out", the African slave survived because of spirituals by "singing through many of their problems", by creating their own "way of communicating".[51] Enslaved people introduced a number of new instruments to America: the bones, body percussion, and an instrument variously called the bania, banju, or banjar, a precursor to thebanjo but withoutfrets.[51] They brought with them from Africa long-standing religious traditions that highlighted the importance of storytelling.[53][54]
Evidence of the vital role African music has played in the creation of African American spirituals exists, among other elements, in the use of "complex rhythms" and "polyrhythms" from West Africa.[11]: 7–15
According to the beliefs of slave religion, the "material and the spiritual are part of an intrinsic unity".[55] Music, religion, and everyday life are inseparable in the spirituals, and through them, religious ideals were infused into the activities of everyday life.[55]: 372 The spirituals provided some immunity protecting the African American religion from being colonized, and in this way preserved the "sacred as a potential space of resistance".[55]: 372 A 2015 article in theJournal of Black Studies said that it was not surprising therefore that "spirituals were sung primarily as rowing songs, field songs, work songs, and social songs, rather than exclusively within the church."[55]: 372 The article described how, "through the use of metonymy (substituting associated words to ostensibly alter the semantic content), spirituals acted as a form of religious education, able to speak simultaneously of material and spiritual freedom", for example in the spiritual, "Steal Away to Jesus".[55]: 372
In William Eleazar Barton's (1899–1972)Old Plantation Hymns, the author wrote that African American "hymns seldom make allusion to the Bible as a source of inspiration. They prefer "heart religion" to "book religion". Barton, who attended services with African Americans, said that they did not sing the "ordinary" hymns that strengthened "assurance by a promise of God in Holy Scripture"; rather, in the African-American hymns, they appeal to a more personal "revelation from the Lord." He cites the examples of "We're Some of the Praying People" and a hymn from Alabama—"Wear a starry crown". He also notes that both these songs have a "threefold repetition and a concluding line.": 16 In the latter, we find the "familiar swing and syncopation" of the African American.[56]
Spirituals were not simply different versions of hymns or Bible stories, but rather a creative altering of the material; new melodies and music, refashioned text, and stylistic differences helped to set apart the music as distinctly African-American.[57][58]
TheFirst Great Awakening, or "Evangelical Revival"—a series ofChristian revivals in the 1730s and 1740s sweptGreat Britain and itsNorth American colonies, resulted in many enslaved people in the colonies being converting to Christianity.[59] During that time northernBaptist andMethodist preachers converted African Americans, including those who were enslaved. In some communities African Americans were accepted into Christian communities as deacons.[60] From 1800 to 1825 enslaved people were exposed to the religious music of camp meetings on the ever-expanding frontier.[9] As African religious traditions declined in America in the 18th and 19th centuries, more African Americans began to convert to Christianity.[61] In a 1982 "scathing critique" of Awakening scholars, Yale University historian, Jon Butler, wrote that the Awakening was a myth that has been constructed by historians in the 18th century who had attempted to use the narrative of the Awakening for their own "religious purposes".[62]
By the 17th century, enslaved Africans were familiar with Christian biblical stories, such as the story ofMoses andDaniel, seeing their own stories reflected in them. An Africanized form of Christianity evolved in the slave population with African American spirituals providing a way to "express the community's new faith, as well as its sorrows and hopes."[44]
As Africans were exposed to stories from the Bible, they began to see parallels to their own experiences. The story of the exile of the Jews and their captivity in Babylon, resonated with their own captivity.[59]
The lyrics of Christian spirituals reference symbolic aspects of Biblical images such asMoses and Israel'sExodus from Egypt in songs such as "Michael Row the Boat Ashore". There is also a duality in the lyrics of spirituals. They communicated many Christian ideals while also communicating the hardship that was a result of being an enslaved.[63]Theriver Jordan in traditional African American religious song became a symbolic borderland not only between this world and the next. It could also symbolize travel to the north and freedom or could signify a proverbial border from the status of slavery to living free.[64]
Syncopation, or ragged time, was a natural part of spiritual music. Songs were played on African-inspired instruments.[65]
African-American spirituals have associations with plantation songs, slave songs, freedom songs, and songs of the Underground Railway, and were oral until the end of theUS Civil War. Following the Civil War and emancipation, there has been "extensive collection and preservation of spirituals as folk song tradition". The first collection of Negro spirituals was published in 1867, two years after the war had ended. EntitledSlave Songs of the United States, it was compiled by three northern abolitionists—Charles Pickard Ware (1840–1921),Lucy McKim Garrison (1842–1877),William Francis Allen (1830–1889)[17][66][Notes 4] The 1867 compilation built on the entire collection ofCharles P. Ware, who had mainly collected songs at Coffin's Point,St. Helena Island,South Carolina, home to the African-AmericanGullah people originally from West Africa. Most of the 1867 book consisted of songs gathered directly from African Americans.[17] By the 1830s at least, "plantation songs", "genuine slave songs", and "Negro melodies", had become extraordinarily popular. Eventually, "spurious imitations" for more "sentimental tastes" were created. The authors noted that "Long time ago", "Near the lake where drooped the willow", and "Way down in Raccoon Hollow" were borrowed from African-American songs.[17] There had been a renewed interest in these songs through thePort Royal Experiment (1861– ), where newly freed African American plantation workers successfully took over operation ofPort Royal Island plantations in 1861, where they had formerly been enslaved. Northern abolitionist missionaries, educators and doctors came to oversee Port Royal's development. The authors noted that, by 1867, the "first seven spirituals in this collection" were "regularly sung at church".[17]
In 1869, ColonelThomas Wentworth Higginson, who commanded the first African-American regiment of the Civil War, the 1st South Carolina Volunteers—"recruited, trained, and stationed atBeaufort, South Carolina" from 1862 to 1863.[67] Higginson admired the former slaves in his regiment saying, "It was their demeanor under arms that shamed the nation into recognizing them as men." He mingled with the soldiers and in published his 1869 memoirArmy Life in a Black Regiment in which he included the lyrics of selected spirituals.[68][69] During the Civil War, Higginson wrote down some of the spirituals he heard in camp. "Almost all their songs were thoroughly religious in their tone, ...and were in a minor key, both as to words and music."[68][70]
Starting in 1871, theFisk Jubilee Singers began touring, creating more interest in the "spirituals as concert repertory". By 1872, the Jubilee Singers were publishing their own books of songs, which included "The Gospel Train".
Reverend Alexander Reid had attended a Fisk Jubilee Singers' performance in 1871, and suggested they add several songs to their repertoire. Reid, who had been a superintendent at theSpencerville Academy inOklahoma inChoctaw Nation territory in the 1850s, had heard two workers enslaved by the Choctaw people,—an African-American family—fatherWallace Willis and daughterMinerva Willis—singing "their favorite plantation songs" from their cabin door in the evenings. They had learned the songs in "Mississippi in their early youth."[71] Reid provided the Jubilee Singers with the lyrics of "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot",Roll, Jordan, Roll, "The Angels are Coming", "I'm a Rolling", and "Steal Away To Jesus", and others that Willis and his wife had sung.[71] The Jubilee Singers popularized Willis' songs.
The original Fisk Jubilee Singers, a touringa cappella male and female choir of nine students of the newly established Fisk school in Nashville, Tennessee who were active from 1871 to 1878, popularized Negro spirituals.[72] The name "jubilee" referred to the "year of jubilee" in theOld Testament—a time of the emancipation of slaves. On January 9, 1866, shortly after the end of theAmerican Civil War (1861 to May 9, 1865), theAmerican Missionary Association founded theFisk University inNashville, Tennessee, thehistorically black college. As a school-fundraiser, the Fisk Jubilee Singers had their first tour on what is now called Jubilee Day—October 6, 1871.[72] The first audiences were small, local, and skeptical, but by 1872, they performed at Boston's World Peace Festival and at the White House, and in 1873 they toured Europe.[72]
In their early days, the Jubilee Singers did not sing the slave songs. Sheppard—who also composed and arranged music—explained how slave songs, like those published in the 1867Slave Songs, had not initially been part of the Singers' repertoire because the songs, "were sacred to our parents, who used them in their religious worship and shouted over them." Shephard said that, "It was only after many months that gradually our hearts were opened to the influence of these friends and we began to appreciate the wonderful beauty and power of our songs." Eventually their repertoire began to include these songs.[17][73]
By 1878 the Singers had disbanded.[72] In 1890 the Singers legacy was revived whenElla Sheppard, Moore—one of the original nine Fisk Jubilee Singers—returned to Fisk and began to coach new jubilee vocalists, includingJohn Wesley Work Jr. (1871–1925).[74]: 253 In 1899, Fisk University president E. M. Cravath put out a call for a mixed (male and female) jubilee singers ensemble that would tour on behalf of the university.[74]: 253 The full mixed choir became too expensive to tour, and was replaced by John Work II's male quartet. The quartet received "widespread acclaim" and eventually made a series of best-selling recordings for Victor in December 1909, February 1911, for Edison in December 1911, for Columbia is October 1915 and February 1916, and Starr in 1916.[74]: 253 John Work Jr.—also known asJohn Work II—spent three decades atFisk University, collecting and promulgating the "jubilee songcraft" of the original Fisk Jubilee Singers and in 1901 he co-publishedNew Jubilee Songs as Sung by the Fisk Jubilee Singers with his brother, Frederick J. Work.[75][76][72]
From 1890 through 1919, "African Americans made significant contributions to the recording industry in its formative years", with recordings by the Fisk Jubilee Singers and others.[77]
In 1873, the Hampton Singers formed a group inHampton, Virginia at what is now known asHampton University. They were the first ensemble to "rival the Jubilee Singers". WithRobert Nathaniel Dett (1882–1943) as conductor until 1933, Hampton Singers "earned an international following."[45]
The first formala cappella Tuskegee Quartet was organized in 1884 byBooker T. Washington, who was also the founder of theTuskegee Institute. Since 1881, Washington had insisted that everyone attending their weekly religious services should join in singing African American spirituals. The Quartet was formed to "promote the interest of Tuskegee Institute". In 1909 a new quartet was formed. The singers travelled intermittently until the 1940s.[78] Like the Fisk Jubilee Singers, the Tuskegee Institute Singers sang spirituals in a modified harmonized style.
African American composers—Harry Burleigh,R. Nathaniel Dett, andWilliam Dawson, created a "new repertoire for the concert stage" by applying their Western classical education to the spirituals.[14] They brought spirituals to concert settings and mentored the next generation of professional spirituals musicians starting in the early 20th century.[79]
Harry Burleigh's (1866–1949)—an African-Americanclassical composer and baritone performed in many concert settings publishedJubilee Songs of the United States in 1929, which made "spirituals available to solo concert singers as art songs for the first time".[80]: 102 Burleigh arranged spirituals with a classical form. He was also a baritone, who performed in many concert settings. He introduced classically trained artists, such asAntonín Dvořák to African-American spirituals.[81] Some believe that Dvorak was inspired by the spirituals in hisSymphony From the New World.[65] He coached African-American soloists, such asMarian Anderson,[82] as solo classical singers. Others, such asRoland Hayes andPaul Robeson continued his legacy.[57]: 284 [80]
R. Nathaniel Dett (1882–1943) is known for his arrangements that incorporated the music and spirit of European Romantic composers with African-American spirituals.[83] In 1918, he said, "We have this wonderful store of folk music—the melodies of an enslaved people" but it will be of no value if it is not used. We must treat spirituals "in such manner that it can be presented in choral form, in lyric and operatic works, in concertos and suites and salon music".[58]: 280 R. Nathaniel Dett was a mentor toEdward Boatner (1898–1981), an African American composer who wrote many popular concert arrangements of the spirituals.[58][80] Boatner and Willa A. Townsend publishedSpirituals triumphant old and new in 1927.[84] Boatner "maintained the importance of authenticity regarding the collection and transcription of spirituals, but also clearly identified with the new, stylized and polished ways in which they were arranged and performed".[80]: 102
William L. Dawson (1876 – 1938), a composer, choir director, music professor, andmusicologist, is known, among other accomplishments, for the world premiere by thePhiladelphia Orchestra of his 1934Negro Folk Symphony which was revised with added African rhythms in 1952 following Dawson's trip toWest Africa. One of his most popular spirituals is "Ezekiel Saw the Wheel".[85][86]
The Fisk Jubilee Singers continue to maintain their popularity in the 21st century with live performances in locations such asGrand Ole Opry House in 2019 in Nashville, Tennessee.[87] In 2019Tazewell Thompson presented an cappella musical entitledJubilee, which is a tribute to the Fisk Jubilee Singers.[88]
Spirituals remain a mainstay particularly in small black churches, often Baptist or Pentecostal, in the deep South.[89]
The latter half of the 20th century saw a resurgence of the spiritual. This trend was impacted strongly by composers and musical directors such asMoses Hogan andBrazeal Dennard.
Arthur Jones founded "The Spirituals Project" at theUniversity of Denver in 1999 to help keep alive the message and meaning of the songs that had moved from the fields of the South to the concert halls of the North.[89]
Everett McCorvey founded The American Spiritual Ensemble[90] in 1995, a group of about two dozen professional singers who tour performing spirituals in the United States and abroad. The group has produced several CDs, including "The Spirituals",[91] and is the focus of a public broadcasting documentary.[92]
Qualities of the spirituals include mastery of the blending of voices, timing, and intonation.[51]
Spirituals were originally unaccompaniedmonophonic songs. The tempo in some songs may be slowed down at times—ritardando—as in the case of "sorrow songs" and/or to showcase the "beauty and blending of the voices".[74]
Along with the "solo call and unison response", songs may include "overlapping layers, and spine-tingling falsetto humming."[74]
Stylistic origins includeAfrican music,Christian hymns,work songs,field holler,.[93] Historian Jonathan Curiel also noted possible influences fromIslamic music.[94] According to a McGraw Hill publication for grade school, "Spirituals were sung aslullabies and play songs. Some spirituals were adapted as work songs.[59]
Black spirituals "use of microtonally flatted notes,syncopation and counter-rhythms marked by handclapping in black spiritual performances."[45] It "stands out for the singers' striking vocal timbre that features shouting, exclamations of the word "Glory!" and raspy and shrill falsetto tones".[45]
Numerous rhythmical and sonic elements of spirituals can be traced to African sources, including prominent use of thepentatonic scale (the black keys on the piano).[95]
In his 1954 bookStudies in African Music,Arthur Morris Jones (1889–1980), a missionary andethnomusicologist, said that in African music, the "complex interweaving of contrasting rhythmic patterns" was central to African music, just as harmonies were valued in European music. Jones described the drum is the highest expression of rhythms, but they can also be produced through hand-clapping, stick-beating, rattles, and the "pounding of pestles in a mortar".[96]: 26 [Notes 5][97]
Over time "formal concert tradition has evolved,"[91] which included the work of theHampton Singers under composer R. Nathaniel Dett.[45]
In the 20th century, composers, such asMoses Hogan,Roland Carter,Jester Hairston,Brazeal Dennard andWendell Whalum transformed the "cappella arrangements of spirituals for choruses" beyond its "traditional folk song roots".[45]
University of Denver professor,Arthur Jones, who established "The Spirituals Project in 1998, out of the university's Lamont School of Music, described how coded words could be introduced in the call and response overlap, which only insiders aware of the encrypted message could understand.[8]: 51, 55 [98] He described "already existing spirituals" were employed "clandestinely" as one of the many ways people used in their "multilayered struggle for freedom."[8]: 51, 55 [91]
Slave songs were called "Sorrow Songs" byW.E.B. Du Bois in his book, 1903 book,The Souls of Black Folk.[40][41] Sorrow songs are spirituals, such as, "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child", and "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen"—songs that are intense and melancholic—are sung at a slower pace.[45]
The Fisk Jubilee Singers had been so successful that other groups were created to perform similar music.[99] Over time the term "jubilee" was used to refer to other ensembles who sang the original group's repertoire.[99] In the early 1900s jubilee singers also referred to singers who performed gospel music, and hymns as well as spirituals.[99] Examples of these early nineteenth century groups include the Norfolk Jubilee Quartet, the Utica Jubilee Singers, and the Tuskegee Institute Singers.[99]
Jubilee songs, also known as "camp meeting songs," such as and "Fare Ye Well" and "Rocky my soul in the bosom of Abraham" are fast-paced, "rhythmic and often syncopated".[45] Spiritual songs which looked forward to a time of future happiness, or deliverance from tribulation, were often known as 'jubilees.[citation needed]
In some churches, such as thePentecostal church in the 1910s and 1920s inNew Orleans, there was no organ or choir and music was louder, more exuberant and included up tempo spirituals called "jubilees". They "used the drum, the cymbal, the tambourine, and the steel triangle. Everybody in there sang, and they clapped and stomped their feet, and sang with their whole bodies. They had a beat, a rhythm we held on to from slavery days, and their music was so strong and expressive."[100]: 52–53
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Frederick Douglass, an abolitionist and a former slave said that slave songs awakened him to the dehumanizing character of slavery, "The mere recurrence, even now, afflicts my spirit, and while I am writing these lines, my tears are falling. To those songs I trace my first glimmering conceptions of the dehumanizing character of slavery. I can never get rid of that conception. Those songs still follow me, to deepen my hatred of slavery, and quicken my sympathies for my brethren in bonds.[101]
In a 2017PBS Newshour, segment entitled "Singing in Slavery: Songs of Survival, Songs of Freedom" said that, while it is "has not been proven, it is believed"—that "Wade in the Water" was one of the songs associated with theUnderground Railroad—a network of secret routes and safe houses used by slaves in the United States to find freedom.[102] warn slaves to get off the trail and into the water to preventbloodhounds—used by the slavers—from following their trail.[102][8][103][104]: 18
Jones described how during the years of theUnderground Railroad "already existing spirituals" were employed "clandestinely" as one of the many ways people used in their "multilayered struggle for freedom."[8]: 51, 55 He described how coded words could be introduced in the call and response overlap, which only insiders aware of the encrypted message.[8]: 51, 55
A collaborative production byMaryland Public Television,Maryland Historical Society, andMaryland State Archives entitled "Pathways to Freedom: Maryland and the Underground Railroad" had included a section on how songs that many slaves knew had "secret meanings" that they could be "used to signal many things".[105] Certain songs were believed to have contained explicit instructions to fugitive slaves on how to avoid capture and the route to take to successfully make their way to freedom.[106][107] Other spirituals that some believe have coded messages include "The Gospel Train", "Song of the Free", and "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot", "Follow the Drinking Gourd".[108] James Kelley in his 2008 article said that there is a lack of corroborating sources to prove that there is a coded message in "Follow the Drinking Gourd".[109][110][111]
One 1953 article bySterling Brown said that there are scholars who "believe that when the Negro sang of freedom, he meant only what the whites meant, namely freedom from sin."[112] Brown said that, to an enslaved person freedom would also mean freedom from slavery.[112] When the enslaved person sings, "I been rebuked, I been scorned; done had a hard time sho's you bawn," he is not only referring to freedom from sin but from physical bondage.[112] Brown cited Douglass, saying that Canaan stood for Canada; and "over and beyond hidden satire the songs also were grapevines for communications.Harriet Tubman, herself called the Moses of her people, has told us that "Go Down Moses" wastabu in the slave states, but the people sang it nonetheless."[112]
A 2016 Library of Congress article said thatFreedom songs andprotest songs, such as,Bob Marley's "Redemption Song" andBilly Bragg's "Sing their souls back home'" were based on African American spirituals, and that became the musical backdrop of the call for democracy around the globe.[45] Many of the freedom songs, such as "Oh, Freedom!" and "Eyes on the Prize," that defined theCivil rights movement (1954–1968) were adapted from some of the early African American spirituals. Some such as, "We Shall Overcome," combined the gospel hymn "I'll Overcome Someday" with the spiritual "I'll Be all right."[45][113][114]
In the 1927 anthology,The American Songbag, compiled byCarl Sandburg (1878–1967), the American poet and folklorist, he wrote that "Ain' Go'n' to Study War No Mo'" was an example of a spiritual that African Americans used as work songs. He said, that, "As the singers go on, hour by hour, they bring in lines from many other spirituals. The tempo is vital. Never actually monotonous. Never ecstatic, yet steady in its onflow, sure of its pulses. It is a work song-spiritual. War is pronounced "wah" or "waw" as if to rhyme with "saw." Horse is "hawss." And so on with Negro economy of vocables in speech and song."[115]: 480–481
Field holler music, also known as levee camp holler music, was an early form ofAfrican American music, described in the 19th century.[94] Field hollers laid the foundations for the blues, spirituals, and eventuallyrhythm and blues.[93] Field hollers, cries and hollers of theenslaved people and latersharecroppers working in cotton fields, prisonchain gangs, railway gangs (gandy dancers) or turpentine camps were the precursor to thecall and response of African American spirituals andgospel music, tojug bands,minstrel shows,stride piano, and ultimately to the blues,rhythm and blues,jazz andAfrican American music in general.[93]
Blues andgospel music are derivatives of African American spirituals.
In the early 1960s,Blues People byAmiri Baraka—the chosen name forLeRoi Jones (1934–2014)—provided a history of African Americans through their music, beginning with the spirituals to the blues.[116][117] By 1967, Jones had become the main spokesperson for African American intellectuals, displacingJames Baldwin, according to a 1965 review ofBlues People.[118]
The blues form originated in the 1860s in theDeep South—South Carolina,Mississippi,Florida,Alabama,Georgia,Louisiana,Tennessee, andTexas—states that were most dependent on theslave labor onplantations and that held the largest number of enslaved people.[119] The form was collectively developed by generations and communities of enslaved African Americans starting as "unaccompanied work-songs of the plantation culture".[120] The historical roots of the blues have been traced farther back to West African sources by scholars such asPaul Oliver[121] andGerhard Kubik[122]—with elements such as the "responsorial 'leader-and-chorus' form".[120][123]: 10–13 The blues became the "most extensively recorded of all traditional music types" and since the "early 1960s,—the "most important single influence on the development of Western popular music,"[120] and are now widespread.[124]: 131 [Notes 6]
WhenMamie Smith's August 10, 1920,Okeh recording of the composerPerry Bradford's (1893–1970)New York CityCrazy Blues became a commercial success, it opened the commercial record market for music for an African American audience.[13][125][126] Prior to the success of this recording, commercial recording companies featured non-African American musicians playing African-American music.[127]: 343–345 Bradford's African-American band, the Jazz Hounds, "played live, improvised", "unpredictable", "breakneck" music that was a "refreshing contrast to the buttoned-up versions of the blues interpreted by white artists across the 1910s".[13]
A 1976 book,Stomping the Blues by Albert Murray, said that this interaction between Christianity and African-American spirituals occurred only in the United States. Africans who converted to Christianity in other parts of the world, even in theCaribbean andLatin America, did not evolve this particular form.[128]
Sacred music includes both spirituals and gospel music, which "originated in the black church and has become a globally recognized genre of popular music. In its earliest manifestations, gospel music functioned as an integral religious and ceremonial practice during worship services. Now, gospel music is also marketed commercially and draws on contemporary, secular sounds while still conveying spiritual and religious ideas."[9]
Well-known gospel singerMahalia Jackson (1911–1972) was one of Gospel music's most prominent defenders. She said that, "Blues are the songs of despair. Gospel songs are the songs of hope. When you sing gospel you have a feeling there is a cure for what's wrong. When you're through with the blues you've got nothing to rest on."[100]: 52 Horace Clarence Boyer traced the emergence of Gospel music as a "discrete musical style" to the Deep South in 1906 in Pentecostal churches. Through theGreat Migration of African American from the south to the north, especially in the 1930s, gospel songs entered the "mainstream of American popular culture". Gospel music had its heyday from 1945 to 1955—the "Golden Age of Gospel."[129]
Gospel Quartets, like theGolden Jubilee Quartet and theGolden Gate Quartet, changed the style of spirituals with their innovative, jubilee style which included new harmonies, syncopation with sophisticated arrangements.[99] An example of their music was their performance of "Oh, Jonah!"[45][130] The Golden Gate Quartet—who were active from 1934 to the late 1940s—performed in the concertFrom Spirituals to Swing atCarnegie Hall in the late 1930s.[99]Zora Neale Hurston, in her 1938 bookThe Sanctified Church, criticized what she called "Glee Club style" of the Fisk Jubilee Singers, Tuskegee Institute Quartet, and Hampton Singers in the 1930s. She said they were using a style" that was "full of musicians' tricks" that were not authentic to their roots in the original African American spirituals. The authentic spirituals could only be found in the "unfashionable Negro church".[131]
In his 1938 book,White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands, Vanderbilt University'sGeorge Pullen Jackson in Nashville drew attention to the existence of a white spiritual genre which differed in many aspects from African American spirituals.[45] The core of Jackson's argument, however, supported by many musical examples, is that African-American spirituals draw heavily on textual and melodic elements found in white hymns and spiritual songs. Jackson extended the term "spirituals" to a wider range of folk hymnody but this does not appear to have been widespread usage previously. The term, however, has often been broadened to include subsequent arrangements into more standard European-American hymnodic styles, and to include post-emancipation songs with stylistic similarities to the original African American spirituals.
The historianSylviane Diouf andethnomusicologistGerhard Kubik identifyIslamic music as an influence.[94][132] Diouf notes a resemblance between theIslamic call to prayer (originating fromBilal ibn Rabah, a famousAbyssinianAfrican Muslim in the early 7th century) and 19th-centuryfield holler music, noting that both have similar lyrics praising God, melody, note changes, "words that seem to quiver and shake" in the vocal chords, dramatic changes inmusical scales, and nasalintonation. She attributes the origins of field holler music toAfrican Muslim slaves who accounted for an estimated 30% of African slaves in America. According to Kubik, "the vocal style of many blues singers usingmelisma, wavy intonation, and so forth is a heritage of that large region ofWest Africa that had been in contact with theArabic-Islamic world of theMaghreb since the seventh and eighth centuries."[94][132] There was particularly a significant trans-Saharan cross-fertilization between the musical traditions of the Maghreb and theSahel.[132]
There was a difference in the music performed by the predominantly MuslimSahelian slaves and the predominantly non-Muslim slaves from coastal West Africa andCentral Africa. The Sahelian Muslim slaves generally favored wind and string instruments and solo singing, whereas the non-Muslim slaves generally favored drums and group chants. Plantation owners who feared revolt outlawed drums and group chants, but allowed the Sahelian slaves to continue singing and playing their wind and string instruments, which the plantation owners found less threatening.[132] According to Curiel stringed instruments these string instruments may have the precursor to thebanjo.[94] While many were pressured to convert to Christianity, the Sahelian slaves were allowed to maintain their musical traditions, adapting their skills to instruments such as thefiddle andguitar. Some were also allowed to perform at balls for slave-holders, allowing the migration of their music across the Deep South.[132]
Thesenotable spirituals were written or widely adopted by African Americans:
The Negro Spirituals are purely and solely the creation of the American Negro... When it came to the use of words, the maker of the song was struggling as best he could under his limitations in language and, perhaps, also under a misconstruction or misapprehension of the facts in his source of material, generally the Bible. ...this music which is America's only folk music...Full text
Between 1501 and 1867, the transatlantic slave trade claimed an estimated 12.5 million Africans and involved almost every country with an Atlantic coastline." This 2015 publication provides an atlas of this "350-year history of kidnapping and coercion". TheAtlas, which is based on an online database (www.slavevoyages.org) "with records on nearly 35,000 slaving voyages—roughly 80 percent of all such voyages ever made" and has "nearly 200 maps...that explore every detail of the African slave traffic to the New World.
"The transatlantic slave trade was the largest forced migration in history, and undeniably one of the most inhumane. The extensive exodus of Africans spread to many areas of the world over a 400-year period and was unprecedented in the annals of recorded human history.
Sacred music, which includes spirituals and gospel music, illustrates the central role that music plays in African American spiritual and religious life. The earliest form of black musical expression in America, spirituals were based on Christian psalms and hymns and were merged with African music styles and secular American music forms. Spirituals were originally an oral tradition and imparted Christian values while also defining the hardships of slavery.
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