 | This articleneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Spiritual Christianity" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Spiritual Christianity (Russian:духовное христианство,romanized: dukhovnoye khristianstvo) is the group of belief systems held by so-called folkProtestants (narodnye protestanty), including non-Eastern Orthodox indigenous faith tribes andnew religious movements that emerged in theRussian Empire. Their origins are varied: some come fromProtestant movements imported from Europe to Russia by missionaries, travelers and workers; others from dissatisfaction with the perceived misbehavior (absenteeism, alcoholism, profiteering) of Orthodox priests, still others from theBezpopovtsyRaskolniks. Those influences, mixed with folk traditions, resulted in communities that are collectively calledsektanty (sectarians). Such communities were typically documented byRussian Orthodox clergy with a label that described their heresy such as not fasting, meeting on Saturday (sabbatarians), rejecting the spirit (spirit wrestlers), body mutilation (castigators), self-flagellation, or suicide.[1]
Theseheterodox (non-orthodox) groups "rejectedritual andoutward observances and believe instead in thedirect revelation of God to the inner man".[2] Adherents are calledSpiritual Christians (Russian:духовные христиане) or, less accurately,malakan in theformer Soviet Union, and "Molokans" in the United States, often confused with "Doukhobors" in Canada.Molokane proper constituted the largest and most organized of many Spiritual Christian groups in the Russian Empire.
Spiritual Christians have been compared to the EuropeanRadical Reformation.[3] Extant Spiritual Christian sects include:Dukhobors,Molokans,New Israel,Sukhie Baptisty,Sons of Freedom and theDukh-i-zhizniki.[4]
The historianPavel Milyukov traced the origins of Spiritual Christianity to theDoukhobors, who were first recorded in the 1800s but originated earlier. Milyukov believed the movement reflected developments amongRussian peasants similar to those underlying theGerman Peasants' War in theGerman Reformation of the 1500s.[5] Many Spiritual Christians embraced egalitarian and pacifist beliefs, which were considered politically radical views by the Russian government. It deported some groups tointernal exile in Central Asia. About one percent escaped suppression by emigrating (1898–1930s) to North America forming adiaspora that divided into many sub-groups.[6]
Among the many sectarians (sektanty : сектанты) in Imperial Russia considered to practice Spiritual Christianity are theDukhobortsy,Maksimisty,Molokans,Subbotniki,Pryguny (Jumpers),Khlysts,[2]Skoptsy,[2] Ikonobortsy (Icon-fighters, "Iconoclasts") andZhidovstvuyushchiye (Жидовствующие: Judaizers). These sects often have radically different notions of "spirituality" and practices. Their common denominator is that they sought God in "Spirit and Truth" (Gospel of John 4:24) rather than in the Orthodox Church or ancient rites ofPopovtsy. Their saying was, "The church is not within logs, but within ribs".[citation needed] The movement was popular with intellectuals such asTolstoy.Nikolai Leskov was also drawn to Spiritual Christianity after visiting Protestant Europe in 1875.[7]
Separate from Spiritual Christianity were other strands of Russiansektanstvo ("sectarianism" in the sense "splitting into sects" rather than "sectarian bigotry") including thePopovtsy and "Evangelical Christianity".[8]
.jpg)
TheMolokane are a sect that has been compared to theRadical Reformation, to theQuakers,[3] and often confused with other Spiritual Christian faiths from Russia.[4] They have a Protestant-like view of the authority of scripture, however interpreting the bible allegorically or "spiritually", they see the sacraments "spiritually", reject the use of icons, images of the cross and Church hierarchy along with venerating the saints.[9][10][11][12][13]Molokane believe each has their owninner light, therefore do not need someone to "jump in the spirit" for them.[14] In Russia, they advocated for pacifism, held home meetings, did not drink or smoke, opposed contraception and some modern technology.[15][3] Many Molokans follow the Old Testament food laws, refusing to eat pork, shellfish or unclean foods. They were named for consuming dairy products (moloko: Russian for "milk") during most Orthodox fasting days.[16] About 40,000 continue the faith in Russia,[12] and one meeting hall continues to meet on Potrero Hill, San Francisco, since 1928.[4]
Mokrye Molokane are a Molokan subsect that split off from the Molokans in the year 2000, that is nearly identical to the Molokans but practice water baptism.[4]
Sukhie Baptisty was a 19th-century Spiritual Christian movement,[17] which was born fromMolokans who merged with theRussian Union of Evangelical Christians. They were called "dry baptists", because they refused to baptize believers in physical water, but instead believing in a "baptism of the spirit", insisting that baptism was a purely spiritual experience instead of a physical one.[18] Very few dry Baptists still exist inGeorgia.[19]
Molokan-Adventisty are a hybrid sect of Molokans and Seventh Day Adventists, the sect was born because of German Adventist missionaries in the 20th century.[4]
ThePryguny (translation: Jumpers) were formed from severalheterodox (sectarian) movements inCentral Russia andTaurida Governorate, most of whom were isolated in the newly acquiredSouth Caucasus to not infect the Orthodox. Named for their ecstatic spiritual jumping dances, these new tribes variously embraced a few essential "Christ's holidays" from Orthodoxy, "God's holidays" from the Old Testament andSubbotniks, adding new prophecies and rituals similar toKhlysty. They have some similarities to westernPentecostalism.[4][20] One outspokenPrygun leader inErivan Governorate,Maksim G. Rudomyotkin (1818-1877), formed his ownMaksimist faith, which merged with the newDukh-i-zhiznik movement formed in Los Angeles, California in the 1930s by adherents who migrated there from 1905 through 1912.
Dukhobortsy were an 18th-century Spiritual Christian movement that evolved fromikonobortsy, opposed all external authorities and the literal Bible, instead being in favour of direct individual revelation. They abolished priests and sacraments, were pacifists and opposed the authority of church and state.[21] One-third mass migrated to Canada (1899-1938), and about 15-20kDukhobortsy still exist in Russia.[12]
Doukhobors are notSons of Freedom. Soon after immigration began to theCanadian prairies, in 1902 a zealous faction calling themselvessvobodniki (free-sovereign people) separated from and attacked other Doukhobors and the Canadian government. Thesvobodniki began several protest marches (treks) to return to Russia. They harassed other Doukhobors for not joining theiranarchistic movement.[22] By the 1920s the they were called "Sons of Freedom" and "Freedomites", and were extensively confused with the Independent Doukhobors who registered their own land and attended public schools; and theChristian Community of Universal Brotherhood (CCUB: community Doukhobors) led byPeter V. Verigin.[21] The Sons of Freedom conducted various protests (nude treks, arson, bombings, not owning land, etc.) into the 1980s.
TheKhlysts (whips, flagellants) were a 17th-century sect that left the Russian Orthodox Church, they held extremely ascetic views, the Khlyst sect became extinct during theSoviet Union.[23] TheKhlysty imposed self denial and focused on the reception of the Holy Spirit through constant prayer, they were denounced as "Quaker heretics" and practices such as ecstatic forms of worship, rhythmic dancing, chants and celibacy resembled the practice of theShakers.[24] The Khlyst practices also resembledPentecostal sects.[25] C. L. Sulzberger, in 1977, claimed thatRasputin "adopted the philosophy (if not proven membership)" of the Khlysts.[26]
Postniki were a sect that was born out of the Khlysts.[27] They emphasized ascetism.[28] They branched intoStaroizrail andNew Israel.[27]
Skoptsy, now extinct, originally split off from the Khlysts and had a high following in the 19th century. The sect believed that forgiveness of sin came through self mutilation, like castration. They also believed that when enough people joined them, Jesus would return.[29] The sect was ultimately destroyed byStalin. Some reported that the Skoptsy sect still exists in small numbers, but there is no serious proof. A few individuals still have similar beliefs inRussia.[30]
New Israel came to resembleProtestantism and theDukhobors much more than Staroizrail, the New Israel movement rejects the Orthodox religious practices and aims to "worship God in spirit and truth".[31] Because many adherents of the movement moved to Uruguay, the movement still exists inUruguay.[32]
Shalaputy were a radical reform movement inImperial Russia during 1830-1890 AD. They demanded that sinful people should not be allowed to attend Church meetings (Novatianism), and opposed the formalism ofOrthodoxy. They also emphasized the Jewish roots of Christianity. The Shalaputs became an evangelical movement made up of peasants who wanted to create their own version of Christianity that opposed Russian Orthodoxy.[33]
Dukh-i-zhizniki (Spirit and Lifers) are a new Spiritual Christianmovement born from a mixture ofecstatic Spiritual Christian faith tribes who migrated to theBoyle Heights district of Los Angeles from theSouth Caucasus from 1904 through 1912. Some may classifyDukh-i-zhizniki as acult due to the prominence of one spiritual leader,Maksim G. Rudomyotkin (1818-1877). Along with partially related tribes in Arizona and Southern California, the organizers debated and negotiated from 1915 to 1928 to combine their spiritual writings and a compromised history into a contested book, which was finally titled:Kniga solntse, dukh i zhizn (Book of the Sun, Spirit and Life, 1928). This book was placed on the altar tables of all member congregations "by the Holy Spirit" as a third testament to their Russian Bibles, and uniquely defines their new family of faiths. In the 1930s the book was sent toPrygun andMaksimist congregations in Kars province, Turkey, and Soviet Armenia where it was accepted by many who interpreted it differently, divided and continue to divide.[14]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Cultural area ofChristian traditions that developed sinceEarly Christianity in theMiddle East,Eastern Europe,North andEast Africa,Asia Minor,South India, and parts of theFar East. | ||||||||
| Main divisions |
| |||||||
| History |
| |||||||
| Scriptures | ||||||||
| Theology | ||||||||
| Worship | ||||||||
