'''Space Shuttle ''Challenger''''' ('''OV-099''') was a [[Space Shuttle orbiter]] manufactured by [[Rockwell International]] and operated by [[NASA]]. Named after [[HMS Challenger (1858)|the commanding ship]] of a [[Challenger expedition|nineteenth-century scientific expedition]] that travelled the world, ''Challenger'' was the second Space Shuttle orbiter to fly into space after ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', and launched on [[STS-6|its maiden flight]] in April 1983. Initially manufactured as a [[Test article (aerospace)|test article]] not intended for spaceflight, it was utilized for ground testing of the Space Shuttle orbiter's structural design. However, after NASA found that their original plan to upgrade ''[[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Enterprise]]'' for spaceflight would be more expensive than upgrading ''Challenger'', the orbiter was pressed into operational service in the [[Space Shuttle program]]. Lessons learned from the first orbital flights of ''Columbia'' led to ''Challenger''{{'}}s design possessing fewer [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system|thermal protection system]] tiles and a lighter fuselage and wings. This led to it being {{Convert|1000|kg|lbs|abbr=off}} lighter than ''Columbia'', though still {{Convert|2600|kg|lbs|abbr=off}} heavier than ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]''.
'''Space Shuttle ''Challenger''''' ('''OV-099''') was a [[Space Shuttle orbiter]] manufactured by [[Rockwell International]] and operated by [[NASA]]. Named after [[HMS Challenger (1858)|the commanding ship]] of a [[Challenger expedition|nineteenth-century scientific expedition]] that travelled the world, ''Challenger'' was the second Space Shuttle orbiter to fly into space after ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', and launched on [[STS-6|its maiden flight]] in April 1983. It was destroyed in January 1986 soon after launch [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|in an accident]] that killed all seven crewmembers aboard. Initially manufactured as a [[Test article (aerospace)|test article]] not intended for spaceflight, it was utilized for ground testing of the Space Shuttle orbiter's structural design. However, after NASA found that their original plan to upgrade ''[[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Enterprise]]'' for spaceflight would be more expensive than upgrading ''Challenger'', the orbiter was pressed into operational service in the [[Space Shuttle program]]. Lessons learned from the first orbital flights of ''Columbia'' led to ''Challenger''{{'}}s design possessing fewer [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system|thermal protection system]] tiles and a lighter fuselage and wings. This led to it being {{Convert|1000|kg|lbs|abbr=off}} lighter than ''Columbia'', though still {{Convert|2600|kg|lbs|abbr=off}} heavier than ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]''.
During its three years of operation, ''Challenger'' was flown on ten missions in the Space Shuttle program, spending over 62 days in space and completing almost 1,000 orbits around Earth. Following its maiden flight, ''Challenger'' supplanted ''Columbia'' as the leader of the Space Shuttle fleet, being the most-flown orbiter during all three years of its operation while ''Columbia'' itself was seldom used during the same time frame. ''Challenger'' was used for numerous civilian satellite launches, such as the first [[U.S. tracking and data relay satellite|Tracking and Data Relay Satellite]], the [[Palapa|Palpa B]] communications satellites, the [[Long Duration Exposure Facility]], and the [[Earth Radiation Budget Satellite]]. It was also used as a test bed for the [[Manned Maneuvering Unit]] (MMU) and served as the platform to repair the malfunctioning [[Solar Maximum Mission|SolarMax telescope]]. In addition, three consecutive [[Spacelab]] missions were conducted with the orbiter in 1985, one of which being the [[STS-61-A|first German crewed spaceflight mission]]. Passengers carried into orbit by ''Challenger'' include the [[Sally Ride|first American female astronaut]], the [[Kathryn D. Sullivan|first American female spacewalker]], the [[Guion Bluford|first African-American astronaut]], and the [[Marc Garneau|first Canadian astronaut]].
During its three years of operation, ''Challenger'' was flown on ten missions in the Space Shuttle program, spending over 62 days in space and completing almost 1,000 orbits around Earth. Following its maiden flight, ''Challenger'' supplanted ''Columbia'' as the leader of the Space Shuttle fleet, being the most-flown orbiter during all three years of its operation while ''Columbia'' itself was seldom used during the same time frame. ''Challenger'' was used for numerous civilian satellite launches, such as the first [[U.S. tracking and data relay satellite|Tracking and Data Relay Satellite]], the [[Palapa|Palpa B]] communications satellites, the [[Long Duration Exposure Facility]], and the [[Earth Radiation Budget Satellite]]. It was also used as a test bed for the [[Manned Maneuvering Unit]] (MMU) and served as the platform to repair the malfunctioning [[Solar Maximum Mission|SolarMax telescope]]. In addition, three consecutive [[Spacelab]] missions were conducted with the orbiter in 1985, one of which being the [[STS-61-A|first German crewed spaceflight mission]]. Passengers carried into orbit by ''Challenger'' include the [[Sally Ride|first American female astronaut]], the [[Kathryn D. Sullivan|first American female spacewalker]], the [[Guion Bluford|first African-American astronaut]], and the [[Marc Garneau|first Canadian astronaut]].
On its tenth flight in January 1986,[[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|''Challenger'' disintegrated 73 seconds after liftoff]], killing the seven-member crew of [[STS-51-L]] that included [[Christa McAuliffe]], who would have been the [[Teacher in Space Project|first teacher in space]]. The [[Rogers Commission Report|Rogers Commission]] convened shortly afterwards concluded that an [[O-ring]] seal in one of ''Challenger''{{'}}s [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket boosters]] failed to contain pressurized burning gas that leaked out of the booster, causing a [[Structural integrity and failure|structural failure]] of ''Challenger''{{'}}s [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] and the orbiter's subsequent disintegration due to [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic forces]]. NASA's [[organizational culture]] was also scrutinized by the Rogers Commission, and the Space Shuttle program's goal of replacing the United States' [[expendable launch system]]s was cast into doubt. The loss of ''Challenger'' and its crew led to a broad rescope of the program, and numerous aspects of it – such as [[Vandenberg Air Force Base Space Launch Complex 6#Space Shuttle|launches from Vandenberg]], the MMU, and [[Shuttle-Centaur]] – were scrapped to improve crew safety; ''Challenger'' and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'' were the only orbiters modified to conduct Shuttle-Centaur launches. The recovered remains of the orbiter are mostly buried in a [[Missile launch facility|missile silo]] located at [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 31|LC-31]], though some pieces are on display at the [[Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex]].
On its tenth flight in January 1986, ''Challenger'' disintegrated 73 seconds after liftoff, killing the seven-member crew of [[STS-51-L]] that included [[Christa McAuliffe]], who would have been the [[Teacher in Space Project|first teacher in space]]. The [[Rogers Commission Report|Rogers Commission]] convened shortly afterwards concluded that an [[O-ring]] seal in one of ''Challenger''{{'}}s [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket boosters]] failed to contain pressurized burning gas that leaked out of the booster, causing a [[Structural integrity and failure|structural failure]] of ''Challenger''{{'}}s [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] and the orbiter's subsequent disintegration due to [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic forces]]. NASA's [[organizational culture]] was also scrutinized by the Rogers Commission, and the Space Shuttle program's goal of replacing the United States' [[expendable launch system]]s was cast into doubt. The loss of ''Challenger'' and its crew led to a broad rescope of the program, and numerous aspects of it – such as [[Vandenberg Air Force Base Space Launch Complex 6#Space Shuttle|launches from Vandenberg]], the MMU, and [[Shuttle-Centaur]] – were scrapped to improve crew safety; ''Challenger'' and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'' were the only orbiters modified to conduct Shuttle-Centaur launches. The recovered remains of the orbiter are mostly buried in a [[Missile launch facility|missile silo]] located at [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 31|LC-31]], though some pieces are on display at the [[Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex]].
==History==
==History==
Revision as of 05:12, 6 June 2021
Second spacecraft used in NASA's Space Shuttle program
Space ShuttleChallenger (OV-099) was aSpace Shuttle orbiter manufactured byRockwell International and operated byNASA. Named afterthe commanding ship of anineteenth-century scientific expedition that travelled the world,Challenger was the second Space Shuttle orbiter to fly into space afterColumbia, and launched onits maiden flight in April 1983. It was destroyed in January 1986 soon after launchin an accident that killed all seven crewmembers aboard. Initially manufactured as atest article not intended for spaceflight, it was utilized for ground testing of the Space Shuttle orbiter's structural design. However, after NASA found that their original plan to upgradeEnterprise for spaceflight would be more expensive than upgradingChallenger, the orbiter was pressed into operational service in theSpace Shuttle program. Lessons learned from the first orbital flights ofColumbia led toChallenger's design possessing fewerthermal protection system tiles and a lighter fuselage and wings. This led to it being 1,000 kilograms (2,200 pounds) lighter thanColumbia, though still 2,600 kilograms (5,700 pounds) heavier thanDiscovery.
Challenger was named afterHMSChallenger, a Britishcorvette that was the command ship for theChallenger Expedition, a pioneering global marine research expedition undertaken from 1872 through 1876.[1] TheApollo 17Lunar Module, which landed on the Moon in 1972, was also namedChallenger.[1]
Construction
Challenger being prepared in 1985 for its second to last flightSTS-61-AChallenger atop aCrawler-transporter, en route to the launch site for its final flight,STS-51-L
Because of the low production volume of orbiters, the Space Shuttle program decided to build a vehicle as aStructural Test Article, STA-099, that could later be converted to a flight vehicle. The contract for STA-099 was awarded to North American Rockwell on July 26, 1972, and construction was completed in February 1978.[2] After STA-099's rollout, it was sent to aLockheed test site in Palmdale, where it spent over 11 months in vibration tests designed to simulate entire shuttle flights, from launch to landing.[3] To prevent damage during structural testing, qualification tests were performed to asafety factor of 1.2 times the design limit loads. The qualification tests were used to validate computational models, and compliance with the required 1.4 factor of safety was shown by analysis.[4] STA-099 was essentially a complete airframe of a Space Shuttle orbiter, with only a mockup crew module installed and thermal insulation placed on its forward fuselage.[5]
Challenger being transported byShuttle Carrier Aircraft 905, shortly before being delivered in 1982
NASA planned to refit the prototype orbiterEnterprise (OV-101), used for flight testing, as the second operational orbiter; butEnterprise lacked most of the systems needed for flight, including a functional propulsion system, thermal insulation, a life support system, and most of the cockpit instrumentation. Modifying it for spaceflight was considered to be too difficult, expensive, and time-consuming. Since STA-099 was not as far along in the construction of its airframe, it would be easier to upgrade to a flight article. Because STA-099's qualification testing prevented damage, NASA found that rebuilding STA-099 as a flight worthy orbiter would be less expensive than refittingEnterprise. Work on converting STA-099 to operational status began in January 1979, starting with the crew module (the pressurized portion of the vehicle), as the rest of the vehicle was still being used for testing by Lockheed. STA-099 returned to the Rockwell plant in November 1979, and the original, unfinished crew module was replaced with the newly constructed model. Major parts of STA-099, including the payload bay doors, body flap, wings, and vertical stabilizer, also had to be returned to their individual subcontractors for rework. By early 1981, most of these components had returned to Palmdale to be reinstalled. Work continued on the conversion until July 1982, when the new orbiter was rolled out asChallenger.[3]
Challenger, as did the orbiters built after it, had fewer tiles in itsThermal Protection System thanColumbia, though it still made heavier use of the white LRSI tiles on the cabin and main fuselage than did the later orbiters. Most of the tiles on the payload bay doors, upper wing surfaces, and rear fuselage surfaces were replaced withDuPont whiteNomex felt insulation. These modifications and an overall lighter structure allowedChallenger to carry 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) more payload thanColumbia.Challenger's fuselage and wings were stronger and lighter thanColumbia's.[3] The hatch and vertical-stabilizer tile patterns were different from those of the other orbiters.Challenger was the first orbiter to have ahead-up display system for use in thedescent phase of a mission, and the first to featurePhase I main engines rated for 104% maximum thrust.
After itsfirst flight in April 1983,Challenger flew on 85% of all Space Shuttlemissions. Even when the orbitersDiscovery andAtlantis joined the fleet,Challenger flew three missions a year from 1983 to 1985.Challenger, along withAtlantis, was modified atKennedy Space Center to be able to carry theCentaur-G upper stage in its payload bay. If flightSTS-51-L had been successful,Challenger's next mission would have been the deployment of theUlysses probe with the Centaur to study the polar regions of the Sun.
STS-51-L was the orbiter's tenth and final flight, initially planned to launch on January 26, 1986 (after several technical and paperwork delays). This mission attracted huge media attention, as one of the crew was a civilian schoolteacher -Christa McAuliffe, who was assigned to carry out live lessons from the orbiter (as part of NASA'sTeacher in Space Project). Other members would deploy a TDRS satellite and conduct comet observations.
Challenger blasted off at 11:38 am EST on January 28, 1986. Just over a minute into the flight, the faulty booster joint opened up, leading to a flame that melted securing struts which resulted in a catastrophic structural failure and explosion of theExternal Tank. The resulting pressure waves and aerodynamic forces destroyed the orbiter, resulting in the loss of all the crew.
Challenger was the first Space Shuttle to bedestroyed in a mission accident.[7] The collected debris of the vessel is currently buried in decommissionedmissile silos atLaunch Complex 31,Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. A section of the fuselage recovered from Space ShuttleChallenger can also be found at the "Forever Remembered" memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida. Debris from the orbiter sometimes wash up on the Florida coast.[8] This is collected and transported to the silos for storage. Because of its early loss,Challenger was the only Space Shuttle that never wore the NASA"meatball" logo, and was never modified with the MEDS "glass cockpit". The tail was never fitted with a drag chute, which was fitted to the remaining orbiters in 1992.Challenger and sister shipColumbia are the only two shuttles that never visited the Mir Space Station or the International Space Station. In September 2020Netflix releasedChallenger: The Final Flight, a four-part miniseries created by Steven Leckart and Glen Zipper documenting the tragedy firsthand.
Lawsuits
In March 1988 the federal government and Morton Thiokol Inc. agreed to pay $7.7 million in cash and annuities to the families of four of the sevenChallenger astronauts as part of a settlement aimed at avoiding lawsuits in the nation's worst space disaster, according to government documents.The documents show that Morton Thiokol, which manufactured the faulty solid rocket boosters blamed for the accident, paid 60 percent, or $4,641,000. The remainder, $3,094,000, was paid by the government.
In September 1988 a federal judge dismissed two lawsuits seeking $3 billion from Space Shuttle rocket-maker Morton Thiokol Inc. byRoger Boisjoly, a former company engineer who warned against the ill-fated 1986Challenger launch.[9]
Guion Bluford becomes first African-American in space. First shuttle night launch and night landing. DeployedINSAT-1B. Carried 261,900 envelopes stamped to commemorate the 25th Anniversary ofNASA, most of which were sold to the public.[10]
First mission to have a private citizen in space (Christa McAuliffe).Disintegrated after launch, killing all seven astronauts on board. Would have deployedTDRS-B.
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