Aspear is apolearm consisting of a shaft, usually ofwood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case withfire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastened to the shaft, such asbone,flint,obsidian,copper,bronze,iron, orsteel. The most common design for hunting and/or warfare, since modern times has incorporated a metal spearhead shaped like atriangle,diamond, orleaf. The heads of fishing spears usually feature multiple sharppoints, with or without barbs.
Spears can be divided into two broad categories: those designed for thrusting as a melee weapon (including weapons such aslances andpikes) and those designed for throwing as a ranged weapon (usually referred to asjavelins).
The spear has been used throughout human history as a weapon for hunting and/or fishing and for warfare. Along with theclub,knife, andaxe, it is one of the earliest and most widespread tools ever developed by early humans. As a weapon, it may be wielded with either one or two hands.[1] It was used in virtually every conflict up until themodern era, where even to this day, it lives on in the form of abayonet fixed onto the muzzle of along gun.[2]
Early humans progressively invented tools and techniques for trapping animals. The earliest spears were crafted from wood, with tips toughened by burning. By 15,000 BC, hunters employed wooden and bonespear-launchers to enhance force and distance. These devices were frequently adorned with carvings of creatures.[3][better source needed]
Spear manufacture and use is not confined to humans. It is also practiced by thewestern chimpanzee. Chimpanzees nearKédougou, Senegal have been observed to create spears by breaking straight limbs off trees, stripping them of their bark and side branches, and sharpening one end with their teeth. They then used the weapons to huntgalagos sleeping in hollows.[4]
TheClacton Spear found in England and theSchöningen spears found in present-dayGermany document that wooden spears have been used for hunting since at least 400,000 years ago.[5][6][7] A 2012 study from the site ofKathu Pan in South Africa suggests that hominids, possiblyHomo heidelbergensis, may have developed the technology of hafted stone-tipped spears in Africa about 500,000 years ago.[8][9] Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at theUniversity of Southern California, has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees means that early humans may have used wooden spears before this.[10]
From circa 200,000 BC onwards, MiddlePaleolithic humans began to make complex stone blades with flaked edges which were used as spear heads. These stone heads could be fixed to the spear shaft by gum or resin or by bindings made of animal sinew, leather strips or vegetable matter. During this period, a clear difference remained between spears designed to be thrown and those designed to be used in hand-to-hand combat. By theMagdalenian period (c. 15,000–9500 BC), spear-throwers similar to the lateratlatl were in use.[11]
The spear is the main weapon of the warriors ofHomer'sIliad. The use of both a single thrusting spear and two throwing spears are mentioned. It has been suggested that two styles of combat are being described; an early style, with thrusting spears, dating to theMycenaean period in which the Iliad is set, and, anachronistically, a later style, with throwing spears, from Homer's ownArchaic period.[12]
In the 7th century BC, the Greeks evolved a new close-order infantry formation, thephalanx.[13] The key to this formation was thehoplite, who was equipped with a large, circular, bronze-faced shield (aspis) and a 210–270 cm (7–9 ft) spear with an iron head and bronze butt-spike (doru).[14] The hoplite phalanx dominated warfare among the Greek City States from the 7th into the 4th century BC.
The 4th century saw major changes. One was the greater use ofpeltasts, light infantry armed with spear and javelins.[15] The other was the development of thesarissa, a two-handed pike 550 cm (18 ft) in length, by theMacedonians underPhillip of Macedon andAlexander the Great.[16] The pike phalanx, supported by peltasts and cavalry, became the dominant mode of warfare among the Greeks from the late 4th century onward[17] until Greek military systems were supplanted by the Roman legions.
Re-enactor outfitted as a Late Roman legionary carrying apilum
In thepre-Marian Roman armies, the first two lines of battle, thehastati andprincipes, often fought with a sword called agladius andpila, heavy javelins that were specifically designed to be thrown at an enemy to pierce and foul a target's shield. Originally theprincipes were armed with a short spear called ahasta, but these gradually fell out of use, eventually being replaced by the gladius. The third line, thetriarii, continued to use thehasta.
From the late 2nd century BC, alllegionaries were equipped with thepilum. Thepilum continued to be the standard legionary spear until the end of the 2nd century AD.Auxilia, however, were equipped with a simple hasta and, perhaps, javelins or darts. During the 3rd century AD, although thepilum continued to be used, legionaries usually were equipped with other forms of throwing and thrusting spear, similar toauxilia of the previous century. By the 4th century, thepilum had effectively disappeared from common use.[18]
In the late period of the Roman Empire, the spear became more often used because of its anti-cavalry capacities as the barbarian invasions were often conducted by people with a developed culture of cavalry in warfare.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the spear and shield continued to be used by nearly all Western European cultures. Since a medieval spear required only a small amount ofsteel along the sharpened edges (most of the spear-tip was wrought iron), it was an economical weapon. Quick to manufacture, and needing lesssmithing skill than a sword, it remained the main weapon of the common soldier. TheVikings, for instance, although often portrayed with anaxe,sword, orlance in hand, were armed mostly with spears,[19] as were theirAnglo-Saxon,Irish, or continental contemporaries. Spears eventually evolved into lances; this is where the lance depiction comes from.[20] With a good majority of Medieval weapons being spears they became integrated into many war tactics. Spears were very commonly used while providing a defensive block. When men on horses tried to get by these blocks, they would often be killed by the spears that could poke through the shield walls. Spears became more common than swords and axes because of how cheap, long, and fast spears were made.[21][22]
Assyrian soldier holding a spear and wearing a helmet. Detail of a basalt relief from the palace of Tiglath-pileser III at Hadatu, Syria. 744–727 BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul
Broadly speaking, spears were either designed to be used in melee, or to be thrown. Within this simple classification, there was a remarkable range of types. For example, M. J. Swanton identified thirty different spearhead categories and sub-categories in early Saxon England.[23] Most medieval spearheads were generally leaf-shaped. Notable types of early medieval spears include theangon, a throwing spear with a long head similar to the Romanpilum, used by the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, and thewinged (or lugged) spear, which had two prominent wings at the base of the spearhead, either to prevent the spear penetrating too far into an enemy or to aid in spear fencing.[24] Originally a Frankish weapon, the winged spear also was popular with the Vikings. It would become the ancestor of later medieval polearms, such as thepartisan andspetum.
The thrusting spear also has the advantage of reach, being considerably longer than other weapon types. Exact spear lengths are hard to deduce as few spear shafts survive archaeologically, but 180–240 cm (6–8 ft) would seem to have been the average length. Some nations were noted for their long spears, including the Scots and the Flemish. Spears usually were used in tightly ordered formations, such as theshield wall or theschiltron. To resist cavalry, spear shafts could be planted against the ground.[25] William Wallace drew up his schiltrons in a circle at theBattle of Falkirk in 1298 to deter charging cavalry;[26] this was a widespread tactic sometimes known as the "crown" formation.[27]Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray used a circular schiltron on the first day of theBattle of Bannockburn. However, the rectangular schiltron was much more common and was used by KingRobert the Bruce on the second day of the Battle of Bannockburn and in theBattle of Old Byland when he defeated English armies.[28]
Throwing spears became rarer as the Middle Ages drew on, but survived in the hands of specialists such as the CatalanAlmogavars.[29] They were commonly used in Ireland until the end of the 16th century.[30]
Spears began to lose fashion among the infantry during the 14th century, being replaced bypolearms that combined the thrusting properties of the spear with the cutting properties of the axe, such as thehalberd. Where spears were retained they grew in length, eventually evolving intopikes, which would be a dominant infantry weapon in the 16th and 17th centuries.[31]
Cavalry spears were originally the same as infantry spears and were often used with two hands or held with one hand overhead. In the 12th century, after the adoption ofstirrups and a high-cantled saddle, the spear became a decidedly more powerful weapon. A mounted knight would secure thelance by holding it with one hand and tucking it under the armpit (thecouched lance technique)[32] In combination with alance rest, this allowed all the momentum of the horse and knight to be focused on the weapon's tip, whilst still retaining accuracy and control. This use of the spear spurred the development of thelance as a distinct weapon that was perfected in the medieval sport ofjousting.[33]
In the 14th century, tactical developments meant that knights and men-at-arms often fought on foot. This led to the practice of shortening the lance to about 150 cm (5 ft) to make it more manageable.[34] As dismounting became commonplace, specialist polearms such as thepollaxe were adopted by knights and this practice ceased.[35]
The development of both the long, two-handedpike andgunpowder firearms in Renaissance Europe saw an ever-increasing focus on integrated infantry tactics.[36] Those infantry not armed with these weapons carried variations on the polearm, including thehalberd and thebill. At the start of the Renaissance, cavalry remained predominantly lance-armed;gendarmes with the heavy knightly lance and lighter cavalry with a variety of lighter lances. By the 1540s, however, pistol-armed cavalry calledreiters were beginning to make their mark. Cavalry armed with pistols and other lighter firearms, along with a sword, had virtually replaced lance armed cavalry in Western Europe by the beginning of the 17th century.[37]
Ultimately, the spear proper was rendered obsolete on the battlefield. Its last flowering was the half-pike orspontoon,[38] a shortened version of the pike carried by officers of various ranks. While originally a weapon, this came to be seen more as a badge of office, orleading staff by which troops were directed.[39] The half-pike, sometimes known as a boarding pike, was also used as a weapon on board ships until the late 19th century.[40]
Muslim warriors used a spear that was called anaz-zaġāyah.Berbers pronounced itzaġāya, but the English term, derived from theOld French viaBerber, is "assegai". It is a polearm used for throwing or hurling, usually a light spear or javelin made of hard wood and pointed with a forged iron tip. Theaz-zaġāyah played an important role during theIslamic conquest as well as during later periods, well into the 20th century. A longer poleaz-zaġāyah was being used as a hunting weapon from horseback. Theaz-zaġāyah was widely used. It existed in various forms in areas stretching fromSouthern Africa to theIndian subcontinent, although these places already had their own variants of the spear. This javelin was the weapon of choice during theFulani jihad as well as during theMahdist War in Sudan. It is still being used by certain wandering Sufi ascetics(Derwishes).
In theChinese martial arts, theChinese spear (Qiang 槍) is popularly known as the "king of weapons". The spear is listed in the group of the four major weapons (along with thegun (staff),dao (a single-edged blade similar to asabre), and thejian (sword)).[41]
Spears were used first as hunting weapons amongst the ancient Chinese. They became popular as infantry weapons during theWarring States andQin era, when spearmen were used as especially highly disciplined soldiers in organized group attacks. When used in formation fighting, spearmen would line up their large rectangular or circular shields in a shieldwall manner. The Qin also employed long spears (more akin to a pike) in formations similar to Swiss pikemen in order to ward off cavalry. The Han Empire would use similar tactics as its Qin predecessors. Halberds, polearms, and dagger axes were also common weapons during this time.
Spears were also common weaponry for Warring States, Qin, and Han era cavalry units. During these eras, the spear would develop into a longer lance-like weapon used for cavalry charges.
Bronze spears, notice the ears on the side of the socket.
There are many words in Chinese that would be classified as a spear in English. TheMao is the predecessor of theQiang. The first bronzeMao appeared in theShang dynasty. This weapon was less prominent on the battlefield than thege (dagger-axe). In some archaeological examples two tiny holes or ears can be found in the blade of the spearhead near the socket, these holes were presumably used to attach tassels, much like modern daywushu spears.
In the earlyShang, theMao appeared to have a relatively short shaft as well as a relatively narrow shaft as opposed toMao in the later Shang andWestern Zhou period. SomeMao from this era are heavily decorated as is evidenced by aWarring States periodMao from theBa Shu area.[42]
In the Han dynasty theMao and theJi (戟Ji can be loosely defined as a halberd) rose to prominence in the military. Interesting to note is that the amount of iron Mao-heads found exceeds the number of bronze heads. By the end of the Han dynasty (Eastern Han) the process of replacement of the ironMao had been completed and the bronzeMao had been rendered completely obsolete. After the Han dynasty toward theSui andTang dynasties theMao used by cavalry were fitted with much longer shafts, as is mentioned above. During this era, the use of theShuo (矟) was widespread among the footmen. TheShuo can be likened to a pike or simply a long spear.[43]
A later periodqiang
After the Tang dynasty, the popularity of theMao declined and was replaced by theQiang (枪). The Tang dynasty divided theQiang in four categories: "一曰漆枪， 二曰木枪， 三曰白杆枪， 四曰扑头枪。” Roughly translated the four categories are: Qi (a kind of wood) Spears, Wooden Spears, Bai Gan (A kind of wood) Spears and Pu Tou Qiang. The Qiang that were produced in the Song and Ming dynasties consisted of four major parts: Spearhead, Shaft, End Spike and Tassel. The types of Qiang that exist are many. Among the types there are cavalry Qiang that were the length of onezhang (approximately 320 cm or 10 ft), Litte-Flower Spears (Xiao Hua Qiang 小花枪) that are the length of one person and their arm extended above his head, double hooked spears, single hooked spears, ringed spears and many more.[44]
There is some confusion as to how to distinguish theQiang from theMao, as they are obviously very similar. Some people say that aMao is longer than aQiang, others say that the main difference is between the stiffness of the shaft, where theQiang would be flexible and theMao would be stiff. Scholars seem to lean toward the latter explanation more than the former. Because of the difference in the construction of theMao and theQiang, the usage is also different, though there is no definitive answer as to what exactly the differences are between theMao and theQiang.[45]
Despite their obsolence, spears remained in use with theQing Army in the late 19th century: during theFirst Sino-Japanese War, 40% of Imperial soldiers didn't have rifles or even muskets.[46] Spears and other melee weapons were also widely used by theBoxers during theireponymous rebellion.[47]
During theWarlord Era, the army of warlordSun Chuanfang had units armed only with spears to opposeChiang Kai Shek'sNorthern Expedition as a stopgap measure until he could import more rifles.[48] TheChinese Red Army guerillas often made use of spears against the Japanese occupation forces during theSecond Sino-Japanese War, while several Japanese puppet government troops had to make do with bamboo spears.[49] During theChinese Civil War, both Communist andNationalist forces made use of spears, the latter mostly due Chiang's refusal to supply local commanders with rifles to prevent potential rivals from raising well-armed militias and challenging his authority.[50]
Spears are known asBhala in Indian languages.[51] Spears in theIndian society were used both in missile and non-missile form, both by cavalry and foot-soldiers. Mounted spear-fighting was practiced using with a 300 cm (10 ft), ball-tipped wooden lance called abothati, the end of which was covered in dye so that hits may be confirmed. Spears were constructed from a variety of materials such as thesang made completely of steel, and theballam which had a bamboo shaft.
The Arab presence in Sindh and the Mameluks of Delhi introduced theMiddle Eastern javelin into India.
TheRajputs wielded a type of spear for infantrymen which had a club integrated into the spearhead, and a pointed butt end. Other spears had forked blades, several spear-points, and numerous other innovations. One particular spear unique to India was thevita or corded lance.
Used by theMaratha Army, it had a rope connecting the spear with the user's wrist, allowing the weapon to be thrown and pulled back. TheVel is a type of spear or lance, originated inSouthern India, primarily used byTamils.[52][53]
SikhNihangs sometimes carry a spear even today. Spears were used in conflicts and training by armed paramilitary units such as therazakars ofNizams ofHyderabad State as late as the second half of the 20th century.
Ukiyo-e print of a samurai general holding a yari in his right hand
Thehoko spear was used in ancient Japan sometime between theYayoi period and theHeian period, but it became unpopular as earlysamurai often acted ashorseback archers. Medieval Japan employed spears again for infantrymen to use, but it was not until the 11th century in that samurai began to prefer spears over bows. Several polearms were used in the Japanese theatres; thenaginata was a glaive-like weapon with a long, curved blade popularly among the samurai and theBuddhist warrior-monks, often used against cavalry; theyari was a longer polearm, with a straight-bladed spearhead, which became the weapon of choice of both the samurai and theashigaru (footmen) during theWarring States Era; the horseback samurai used shorter yari for his single-armed combat; on the other hand, ashigaru infantries used long yari (similar with Europeanpike) for their massed combat formation.
A Filipino warrior holding aSibat (spear) in the Boxer Codex.
Filipino spears (sibat) were used as both a weapon and a tool throughout thePhilippines. It is also called abangkaw (after theBankaw Revolt.),sumbling orpalupad in the islands ofVisayas andMindanao. Sibat are typically made from rattan, either with a sharpened tip or a head made from metal. These heads may either be single-edged, double-edged or barbed. Styles vary according to function and origin. For example, a sibat designed for fishing may not be the same as those used for hunting.
The spear was used as the primary weapon in expeditions and battles against neighbouring island kingdoms and it became famous during the 1521Battle of Mactan, where the chieftainLapu Lapu ofCebu fought against Spanish forces led byFerdinand Magellan who was subsequently killed.
The various types of theassegai (a light spear orjavelin made ofwood and pointed withiron or fire-hardened tip) were used throughout Africa and it was the most common weapon used before the introduction offirearms. TheZulu,Xhosa and otherNguni tribes of South Africa were renowned for their use of the assegai.Shaka of theZulu invented a shorter stabbing spear with a 30 cm (1 ft) shaft and a larger, broader blade one foot (0.3m) long. This weapon is otherwise known as theiklwa orixwa, after the sound that was heard as it was withdrawn from the victim's wound.[54][55] The traditional spear was not abandoned, but was used to range attack enemy formations before closing in forclose quarters battle with the iklwa. This tactical combination originated duringShaka's military reforms. This weapon was typically used with one hand while the off hand held acowhideshield for protection.
Similar to most armies of their period,Ancient Egyptian forces were centered around the use of the spear.[56] In battle, spearmen would be armed with abronze-tipped spear (dja) and shield (ikem), which were used in elaborate formations much like Greek and Roman forces. Before theHyksos invasion into Egypt, wooden spears were used, which were prone to splinter, but the influx of a new population brought innovations around bronze technology. Unlike other cultures who wielded spears at this time, the Egyptians did not treat theirjavelins (around 1 meter to 3.3 feet long)[56] as disposable, using them both for thrusting and throwing.[57]
As advancedmetallurgy was largely unknown inpre-Columbian America outside ofWestern Mexico and South America, most weapons inMeso-America were made of wood orobsidian. This did not mean that they were less lethal, as obsidian may be sharpened to become many times sharper than steel.[58] Meso-American spears varied greatly in shape and size. While the Aztecs preferred the sword-likemacuahuitl clubs for fighting,[59] the advantage of a far-reaching thrusting weapon was recognised, and a large portion of the army would carry thetepoztopilli into battle.[60] The tepoztopilli was a polearm, and to judge from depictions in various Aztec codices, it was roughly the height of a man, with a broad wooden head about twice the length of the users' palm or shorter, edged with razor-sharp obsidian blades which were deeply set in grooves carved into the head, and cemented in place withbitumen or plant resin as an adhesive. The tepoztopilli was able both to thrust and slash effectively.
Throwing spears also were used extensively in Meso-American warfare, usually with the help of anatlatl.[61] Throwing spears were typically shorter and more stream-lined than the tepoztopilli, and some had obsidian edges for greater penetration.
Spear Case, Crow (Native American), late 19th century,Brooklyn Museum
Typically, most spears made by Native Americans were created from materials surrounding their communities. Usually, the shaft of the spear was made with a wooden stick while the head of the spear was fashioned from arrowheads, pieces of metal such as copper, or a bone that had been sharpened. Spears were a preferred weapon by many since it was inexpensive to create, could more easily be taught to others, and could be made quickly and in large quantities.
Native Americans used thebuffalo pound method to kill buffalo, which required a hunter to dress as a buffalo and lure one into a ravine where other hunters were hiding. Once the buffalo appeared, the other hunters would kill him with spears. A variation of this technique, called thebuffalo jump, was when a runner would lead the animals towards a cliff. As the buffalo got close to the cliff, other members of the tribe would jump out from behind rocks or trees and scare the buffalo over the cliff. Other hunters would be waiting at the bottom of the cliff to spear the animal to death.[62]
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Peruvian fishermanspearfishing with a multi-pronged spear
One of the earliest forms of killing prey for humans, hunting game with a spear andspear fishing continues to this day as both a means of catching food and as a cultural activity. Some of the most common prey for early humans weremegafauna such asmammoths which were hunted with various kinds of spear. One theory for theQuaternary extinction event was that most of these animals were hunted to extinction by humans with spears. Even after the invention of other hunting weapons such as thebow andsling, the spear continued to be used, either as a projectile weapon or used by hand, such as inbear hunting andboar hunting.
Barred spears: A barred spear has a crossbar beneath the blade, to prevent too deep a penetration of the spear into an animal. The bar may be forged as part of the spearhead or may be more loosely tied by means of loops below the blade. Barred spears are known from the Bronze Age, but the first historical record of their use in Europe is found in the writings ofXenophon in the 5th century BC.[63] Examples also are shown in Roman art. In the Middle Ages, a winged or lugged war-spear was developed (see above), but the later Middle Ages saw the development of specialised types, such as the boar-spear and the bear-spear.[64] The boar-spear could be used both on foot or horseback.
Spear hunting fell out of favor in most of Europe in the 18th century, but continued in Germany, enjoying a revival in the 1930s.[65] Spearhunting is still practiced in the United States.[66] Animals taken are primarily wildboar anddeer, although trophy animals as large asCape Buffalo have been hunted with spears.Alligators are hunted inFlorida with a type ofharpoon.
In underwater settings, the practice ofsport fishing withspearguns is also quite prominent. The invention of the speargun is attributed to either Alec Kramarenko in the mid-1930s[67] orGeorges Beuchat in 1947.
The Norse godOdin, carrying the spearGungnir on his ride toHel
Like many weapons, a spear may also be asymbol of power.
TheCelts would symbolically destroy a dead warrior's spear either to prevent its use by another or as a sacrificial offering.
In classical Greek mythologyZeus' bolts of lightning may be interpreted as a symbolic spear. Some would carry that interpretation to the spear that frequently is associated withAthena, interpreting her spear as a symbolic connection to some of Zeus' power beyond theAegis once he rose to replacing other deities in thepantheon. Athena was depicted with a spear prior to that change in myths, however.Chiron's wedding-gift toPeleus when he married the nymphThetis in classical Greek mythology, was an ashen spear as the nature of ashwood with its straight grain made it an ideal choice of wood for a spear.
The Romans and their early enemies would force prisoners to walk underneath a 'yoke of spears', which humiliated them. The yoke would consist of three spears, two upright with a third tied between them at a height which made the prisoners stoop.[69] It has been suggested that the arrangement has amagical origin, a way to trap evil spirits.[70]
In Norse mythology, the godOdin's spear (namedGungnir) was made by the sons of Ivaldi. It had the special property that it never missed its mark. During the War with the Vanir, Odin symbolically threw Gungnir into the Vanir host. This practice of symbolically casting a spear into the enemy ranks at the start of a fight was sometimes used in historic clashes, to seek Odin's support in the coming battle.[71] InWagner's operaSiegfried, the haft of Gungnir is said to be from the "World-Tree"Yggdrasil.[72]
Other spears of religious significance are theHoly Lance[73] and theLúin of Celtchar,[74] believed by some to have vast mystical powers.
Sir James George Frazer inThe Golden Bough[75] noted the phallic nature of the spear and suggested that in the Arthurian legends the spear or lance functioned as a symbol of male fertility, paired with theGrail (as a symbol of female fertility).
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^* Sébastien Nadot,Rompez les lances ! Chevaliers et tournois au Moyen Age, Paris, ed. Autrement, 2010. (Couch your lances ! Knights and tournaments in the Middle Ages...)
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