For three decades, the region has been plagued by armed conflicts and violence. Various armed groups and militias have operated in the area, leading to displacement, human rights abuses, and the disruption of essential services.[24][25][26]
The AFDL's pursuit of Hutu refugees led to widespread violence and atrocities.[30] The AFDL forces, resorting toindiscriminate killings,mass executions, and acts oftorture, initiated the First Congo War with amassacre in the Lemeragroupement (grouping) of South Kivu, on October 6, 1996. The massacre claimed the lives of several dozen individuals. In ahospital massacre, 37 individuals, including twomedical personnel, were killed.[28][31] On October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees andZairian civilians in Rubenga, a village in South Kivu.[32] Another attack occurred on October 21, 1996, inLubarika village, where an unknown number ofRwandan andBurundian refugees, along with Zairian civilians, were killed by the AFDL forces. Local people were coerced into burying the bodies in four largemass graves.[33] InKamanyola, on October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians, disposing of their bodies inpit latrines.[30] The AFDL persisted in launching attacks on South Kivu'srefugee camps,rivers,airports, anddensely populatedvillages. They carried outcivilian executions and acts ofterrorism against Zairian civilians in various locations, including Nyantende, Bukavu, Lwakabiri, Kashusha,Ulindi River, Kigulube, Ivela, Balika,Kavumu Airport,Lulingu, and Keisha.[34][35] In May 1997, the AFDL gained control over significant parts of the country and captured the capital,Kinshasa. Mobutu fled the country and Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed leadership, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[36][37]
From late 1997 onwards, the relationship between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, Rwanda and the Tutsi soldiers present in the AFDL deteriorated. Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government faced multiple accusations of marginalizing Tutsipolitical factions, excluding them from his administration, and displaying preferential treatment toward hisKatanga clan.[38] In July 1998, driven by fears of a coup d'état, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila relieved Rwandan GeneralJames Kabarebe of his position asChief of Staff of the AFDL, while also issuing an order for theRwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory.[39] In response, on 2 August 1998, a faction of Tutsi soldiers mutinied and, with the assistance of the AFDL, theBanyamulenge militias, theUgandan army (Ugandan People's Defence Force; UPDF), and theBurundi army (Forces Armées Burundaises; FAB), launched a rebellion aimed at overthrowing President Laurent-Désiré Kabila.[38][40] Within a few weeks, this coalition formed theRassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) and gained control over major urban centers inNorth and South Kivu,Orientale Province, North Katanga, and even managed to penetrate into theÉquateur Province. The war resulted in wide-scale displacement, famine, and a staggering loss of lives. Numerous rebel groups and militias emerged, further intensifying the violence and leading to pervasivehuman rights violations, including large-scalemassacres and incidents ofsexual violence.[40][41][42]On August 6, 1998, factions of the ANC/RPA/FAB perpetrated a massacre, claiming the lives of numerous civilians inUvira, in South Kivu.[43] As civilians sought shelter or attempted to flee the combat zone, they fell victim to the FAC in confrontations, resulting in hundreds of fatalities. Moreover, on the same day, members of the ANC, the armed wing of the RCD rebel, killed 13 people, including the chief of theKiringye area, in the village ofLwiburule in South Kivu.[43] Another massacre unfolded as elements of the ANC/RPA claimed the lives of 15 individuals in the vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe, all situated in South Kivu. The victims suffered fromdagger wounds or were shot near the primary port in Kalundu and at the facilities of SEP Congo.[43] On August 24, 1998, RCD forces and Rwandan soldiers unleashed a massacre inKasika and neighboring villages in South Kivu, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 people, as reported by theUnited Nations Mapping Report.[43][44] The majority of the recovered bodies, predominantlywomen andchildren, were discovered on the 60-kilometer journey fromKilungutwe village to Kasika.[45][46] Prior to their murders, the women were subjected torape followed by brutaldisembowelment usingdaggers.[44][47] From December 30, 1998, to January 2, 1999, RCD forcescommitted another massacre, claiming the lives of over 800 civilians, primarily belonging to theBabembe community, in the small village of Makobola in South Kivu. Many victims enduredmachete attacks or were shot at close range, while others met their demise through burning or drowning in nearby rivers.Infants and young children were callously thrown into deep pit latrines, left to perish, while adults who dared to disobey orders and attempted to escape were met withbullets.[48][49] On May 14, 2000, members of the ANC conducted a massacre resulting in 300 deaths in the village ofKatogota in South Kivu.[50][51][52]
The war officially ended in 2003 with the signing of theSun City Agreement, which aimed to establish atransitional government and promotepeace and stability in the DRC. However, sporadic violence and conflicts in the region persisted even after the official end of the war.[39]
TheBanyamulenge, who actively aligned themselves with the AFDL and RCD factions throughout the duration of theSecond Congo War, have been subject to widespreaddisdain among many Congolese due to their alleged involvement in a range of nefarious activities. These accusations include launching assaults onrefugee camps anddensely populated villages, engaging incivilian executions, and orchestrating acts ofterrorism targeting Zairian civilians across various regions of South and North Kivu. Consequently, a considerable number of Congolese view the Banyamulenge as unwelcome intruders encroaching upon their native territories, thereby intensifying the deep-rooted animosity directed towards them.[53][54]
The UN estimates that in 2005, approximately 45,000 women were raped in South Kivu.[55] It forms various armed groups, including the Rwandan-backed armed groups, Banyamulenge armed groups,Raia Mutomboki,Mai-Mai militias,ADF (Allied Democratic Forces) and FDLR. There have been numerous accounts and allegations of sexual violence perpetrated by members of theCongolese army (Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo; FARDC) in eastern Congo. The 10th Military Region of the newly established Congolese military, led by General Pacifique Masunzu, whose undisciplined former factional soldiers are responsible for human rights violations due to a continuing culture of impunity for military personnel, compounded by challenging living conditions, inadequate remuneration, and insufficient training.[24][26][56]Masunzu isMunyamulenge (South Kivu Banyamulenge Tutsi) who broke with the Rwandan-backed Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) back in 2003. He was formerly commander of the 122nd Brigade in theMinembwe area, who in 2005 rebelled against the authorities in defence of the Congolese Banyamulenge, against harassment and physical abuse. Also previously former second in command of 4th Military Region inKasai-Occidental.Africa Confidential said in 2011 that he 'clearly remains implacably opposed to the Rwandan government.'[57][58] His deputy Colonel Baudouin Nakabaka is a formerMai-Mai fighter with close links to theFDLR. In July 2007, United Nations human rights expertYakin Erturk called the situation in South Kivu the worst she has ever seen in four years as the global body's special investigator forviolence against women. Sexual violence throughout Congo is "rampant," she said, blaming rebel groups, the armed forces and national police. Her statement included that "Frequently women are shot or stabbed in their genital organs, after they are raped. Women, who survived months of enslavement, told me that their tormentors had forced them to eat excrement or the human flesh of murdered relatives."[59]
In June 2014, around 35 people were killed inan attack in the South Kivu village ofMutarule. The attack was apparently part of dispute over cattle.[60]
On 7 August 2015 the2015 South Kivu earthquake, a magnitude 5.8 earthquake, struck 35 km (22 mi) north-northeast of Kabare at a depth of 12.0 km (7.5 mi).[61] One policeman was killed.
On July 16, 2020, theNgumino andTwiganeho militias of the Banyamulenge community perpetrated theKipupu massacre, which claimed the lives of 220 people in South Kivu village of Kipupu, as reported by provincial lawmakers.[62][63]
South Kivu Province is characterized by numerousrivers,lakes, andwaterways that crisscross through its landscapes. The region lies in the center of theAfrican Great Lakes, encompassed byLake Kivu towards the west and sharing its border with theVirunga National Park on the east. TheRuzizi River, one of the longest rivers in the world, flows along the province's eastern edge. Meanwhile, its tributaries—theSange, Kavinvira, Kavimvira, Luvimvi, Luvungi, Luvubu, Luberizi, Runingu, Mulongwe, Kiliba, Kalimabenge, and Lugulu Rivers—run through the verdant terrains, nurturing the surrounding ecosystems and supportingfarming activities.[74][75][76]
While the province is rich innatural resources, it is also fraught with challenges and dangers. The area is susceptible toperiodic floods, particularly during therainy season, which cause disruptions to both the community and infrastructure. Over the last few years, parts of the province have been ravaged by flooding. In March 2020–23, torrential rains and the overflow of nearby tributaries inundated homes, including theSange andUvira, located inUvira Territory. These regions experienced severe flooding, resulting in a sudden surge of water that overwhelmed the local infrastructure and communities. The force of thefloodwaters led to the collapse of many houses, leaving families homeless and vulnerable. The aftermath of the flooding also led to the displacement of people who sought refuge in temporary shelters or with relatives in safer areas.[78][79][80][81]
Similarly, other areas in South Kivu Province also faced the wrath of floods, includingNyambasha, Bushushu, Rambira, and Nyamukubi inKalehe Territory. These communities, situated in low-lying areas near rivers andwater bodies, are particularly susceptible to the destructive impact of flooding. Heavy rains and risingwater levels overwhelm local infrastructure and defenses, causing homes to collapse and forcing residents to flee for safety.[82][83][84]
The province's eastern mountainous region experiences a mild mountain climate with a 3 to 4-month dry season from June to September.[90] Cities likeBukavu andUvira maintain an average annual temperature of 19 °C, while higher plateaus and mountains, such asMinembwe and Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, are even cooler, fostering layered andgrassy mountainvegetation.[90]
South Kivu Province, like all other provinces, is administratively divided intoterritories andcities. Furthersubdivisions of territories are:chiefdoms or sectors,groupements (groupings), and villages.
Territories serve as the extensive arms of state administration, functioning as representatives of thecentral government. Each territory within the province is led by a Territorial Administrator and two Assistant Territorial Administrators.[90] Recognizing the vastness of the territories, administrative management positions are established, headed by resident assistant territorial administrators or administrative management position leaders, aiming to bridge the gap between governance and the governed.[90] Appointed by theMinistry of the Interior and Security, territorial officials are included in the state's budgetary provisions. While they directly report to the Ministry of the Interior, they are also accountable to thegovernor, who acts as the representative of both the President in the province and the Ministry of the Interior. The primary role of territorial administrators is to represent the state at the local level and oversee chiefdoms (collectivités).[91]
South Kivu Province is divided into eight territories:
The city is a decentralized administrative unit with legal status.[92] Cities are led bymayors appointed bypresidential decree, as advised by the Ministry of the Interior and Security. The mayor has adeputy mayor, appointed in the same way.[92] The mayor is under the hierarchical authority of the provincialgovernor.[92] South Kivu has three main cities of significance:Baraka,Bukavu (the provincial capital), andUvira.[93][94][95] The northern town ofMinova expanded rapidly from 1994 to 2012 with a steady inflow of refugees following theRwandan genocide as well as bothFirst andSecond Congo Wars, along with ongoing regional conflicts.[96][97]
The city of Bukavu has experienced an exponential urban growth since colonial times. Sadiki et al. (2010) report about 620,000 inhabitants for 2008. The population growth rate increased incredibly in 2002 due to the entry of massive population fromGoma after theNyiragongo eruption of 17 January 2002.[98]
Traditional authority is vested inchieftaincies, also known as collectivities (collectivités) and sectors. The selection of the powerholder within a chiefdom or sector is determined by ethnic traditions and later recognized or formalized by the state, following traditional norms. The leader of a chiefdom carries the honored title of "mwami" (king). The chiefdom is further subdivided intogroupements (groupings), which extend the reach of traditional authority to regrouped villages (localités). Village heads and chiefs manage administrative and governance duties in their respective areas.[91]
Some of the notable chiefdoms and sectors in South Kivu:
South Kivu is divided into 34 health zones (zones de santé). These are grouped into five health districts (districts de santé). These districts do not match the geography of the territories.
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