| South Halmahera | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Maluku Islands |
| Linguistic classification | Austronesian |
| Proto-language | Proto-South Halmahera |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | sout3231 |
TheSouth Halmahera languages are the branch ofAustronesian languages found along the southeast coast of the island ofHalmahera in theIndonesian province ofNorth Maluku.
Most of the languages are only known from short word lists, butTaba andBuli are fairly well attested.
They are not related to theNorth Halmahera languages, which are non-Austronesian. However,Ternatan influence is considerable, a legacy of the historical dominance of theTernate Sultanate.[1]
Reconstructions of subject markers and inalienable possessive markers for Raja Ampat–South Halmahera proto-languages according to Kamholz (2015). Note that V = vocalic conjugation, C = consonantal conjugation:
Proto-South Halmahera:
| 1sg. | *k-,*y- (V),*k-,*-y- (C) | 1pl. | *t- (incl.),*am-,*k- (excl.) |
| 2sg. | *my- (V),*m-y- (C) | 2pl. | *f- |
| 3sg. | *n- (V),*n- (C) | 3pl. | *d- |
| 1sg. | *-g | 1pl. | *-d (incl.),*-mam (excl.) |
| 2sg. | *-m | 2pl. | *-meu |
| 3sg. | *-∅ | 3pl. | *si-...-ri |
Proto-Central-Eastern South Halmahera:
| 1sg. | *k-,*y- (V),*k-,*-i- (C) | 1pl. | *t- (incl.),*k- (excl.) |
| 2sg. | *my- (V),*m-i- (C) | 2pl. | *f- |
| 3sg. | *n- (V),*n- (C) | 3pl. | *d- |
| 1sg. | *a-...-g | 1pl. | *ite-...-r (incl.),*ma-...-mam (excl.) |
| 2sg. | *a-...-m | 2pl. | *meu-...-meu |
| 3sg. | *i- | 3pl. | *si-...-ri |
Proto-Southern South Halmahera:
| 1sg. | *k- (V),*k- (C) | 1pl. | *t- (incl.),*am- (excl.) |
| 2sg. | *m- (V),*m- (C) | 2pl. | *f- |
| 3sg. | *n- (V),*n- (C) | 3pl. | *d-? |
Most Gane and Taba dialects descending from Proto-Southern South Halmahera lost the inalienable possession suffixes. However, evidence from the Tahane dialect of Taba (Collins 1982) suggests that inalienable possession should be reconstructed for Proto-Southern South Halmahera, albeit in relic forms (compare Tahanemta-g "my eye",nim mta-m "your eye", andnim mta "his/her/its eye").
From Kamholz (2024):
From Glottolog:
Reconstruction of lexemes found in Proto-South Halmahera according to Zobel (ongoing), cited from Arnold (2025).[2]
| Proto-South Halmahera | Gloss |
|---|---|
| *giəs | 'areca nut' |
| *sopi | 'to bathe' |
| *masə (?) | 'low tide' |
| *fen(V) | 'sea turtle' |
| *topi | 'sugarcane' |
| *toli | 'three' |
Reconstruction of lexemes found in Proto-Southern South Halmahera according to Zobel (ongoing).[3]
| Proto-Southern South Halmahera | Gloss |
|---|---|
| *ˈdɛwa | 'grass' |
| *ˈdɔba | 'garden' |
| *ˈkiu | 'fear' |
| *ˈkobit | 'knife' |
| *ˈkuy-ô | 'fingernail' |
| *ˈlɛbo | 'flame' |
| *ˈlekat | 'bad' |
| *ˈlilas | 'lightning' |
| *ˈpokal | 'short' |
| *ˈpoy-ô | 'head' |
| *ˈsɛpo | 'fruit' |
| *ˈtakis | 'sea water' |
| *ˈtɛbal | 'shoot' |
| *ˈuat | 'mountain' |
| *ˈweli | 'rattan' |
| *aˈwɔyan | 'right' |
| *baˈtɔl | 'star' |
| *faˈɔn/aˈfɔn | 'eat' |
| *haˈmasik | 'rice' |
| *kaˈbus | 'wet' |
| *kVkˈle | 'hair' |
| *mˈnɔpa | 'wide' |
| *maˈdimal | 'yellow' |
| *maˈleo | 'other' |
| *mei | 'who' |
| *nɔn | 'sharp' |
| *tes | 'not' |
Reconstruction of lexemes found in Proto-Gamrange (per Glottolog) according to Zobel (ongoing).[4]
| Proto-Gamrange | Gloss |
|---|---|
| #dea | 'stupid' |
| #fVwɔw | 'make sago' |
| #p(i)on-ô | 'fruit' |
| #til | 'support' |
| #tVgy[o/u] | 'hungry' |
| *afĭt | 'stick' |
| *atĭl | 'pull' |
| *babăl | 'cold' |
| *bat-ô | 'all' |
| *bVblahĭ | 'embers' |
| *d[e/o]yĭ | 'crab' |
| *dubă ŋaŋĭh-ô | 'thunderstone' |
| *felăh | 'rain' |
| *g[e/o]gĭ | 'mangrove' |
| *gaă | 'catch, pick up' |
| *gVlepăs | 'slippery' |
| *iŋit | 'reap, gather' |
| *lagăy | 'tray, winnow' |
| *lală | 'lie, deceive' |
| *lawă-lawă | 'slowly' |
| *mamufă | 'tame' |
| *mdi-ô | 'stem, trunk' |
| *miamă | 'small' |
| *mVlikV | 'cloud' |
| *namă-namă | 'eat, food' |
| *natăh | 'again' |
| *pek₂ĭt | 'break' |
| *pidVs | 'peel' |
| *podăs | 'split, break open' |
| *puăh | 'where' |
| *pVk₂puk₂[ă/ĭ] | 'bump' |
| *sagĭh | 'sugar palm' |
| *sak₂ĭh | 'thigh' |
| *salĭy | 'crawl' |
| *salĭy | 'set loose' |
| *sefă | 'crawl' |
| *sifsefă | 'cuscus' |
| *slemă | 'sexually active' |
| *sniV | 'month, moon' |
| *spalĭ | 'half' |
| *sVbibVh | 'midwife' |
| *sVl-silVŋ | 'straits' |
| *tisV | 'no, not' |
| *tuk₂ăh | 'fold' |
| *tVlelă | 'surprised' |
| *ulăt | 'sarong' |
| *yelĭ | 'boat' |