| South Halmahera–West New Guinea | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | The southern part of the islands ofNorth Maluku in theHalmahera Sea, and the regions borderingCenderawasih Bay, inIndonesian Papua |
| Linguistic classification | Austronesian
|
| Proto-language | Proto-South Halmahera–West New Guinea (Proto-SHWNG) |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | sout3229 |
 The South Halmahera–West New Guinea languages (red), with map names in French. The group at left is the Raja Ampat–South Halmahera languages; the one at right is the Cenderawasih Bay. (The black line is theWallace Line.) | |
TheSouth Halmahera–West New Guinea (SHWNG) languages are a branch of theMalayo-Polynesian languages, found in the islands and along the shores of theHalmahera Sea in theIndonesian province ofNorth Maluku and ofCenderawasih Bay in the provinces ofPapua andWest Papua. There are 38 languages.[1]
The unity of the South Halmahera–West New Guinea subgroup is well supported by lexical and phonological evidence. Blust (1978) has proposed that they are most closely related to theOceanic languages, but this classification is not universally accepted.[2]
Most of the languages are only known from short word lists, butBuli,Patani andTaba on Halmahera,Ambel on Raja Ampat, andBiak,Wamesa,Wooi, andWaropen in Cenderawasih Bay, are fairly well attested.
Traditionally, the languages are classified into two geographic groups:
The unity of the South Halmahera and Raja Ampat languages is supported by phonological changes noted in Blust (1978) and Remijsen (2002). This results in the following structure:[3]
David Kamholz (2014) includes these languages as additional branches:[1]
The following languages groups are problematic – they may or may not be SHWNG. Kamholz (2014) does not classify them due to lack of data.[1]: 32, 146 Grimes & Edwards include them with theKei–Tanimbar languages, and Kamholz (2024) does not list them as part of SHWNG.[4]
Although the Kowiai language is considered part of SHWNG in Blust's Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, it is not listed as such by Kamholz (2024). Grimes & Edwards include Kowiai within the Seram Laut group.
The SHWNG languages can be categorized as follows (Kamholz 2014: 136-141, Kamholz 2024: 183):[1]
Kamholz (2014) presumes the homeland of proto-SHWNG to be the southern coast of theCenderawasih Bay, around 3,500 years ago.
Kamholz (2024) revises the tree shown above, separatingAmbel-Biga into two primary branches of RASH.
At least six SHWNG languages, namelyMa'ya,Matbat,Ambel,Moor,Yaur, andYerisiam, aretonal.[5]: 8 Klamer, et al. (2008) suggest that tone in these SHWNG languages originated from contact withPapuan languages of theRaja Ampat Islands that are now extinct. There are few lexical similarities with present-day Papuan languages, except for a few words such as 'sago' that are shared with the two tonal Papuan isolatesAbun andMpur (both spoken on the north coast of theBird's Head Peninsula):[6]: 134–135
However, Arnold (2018) traces this etymology toProto-Malayo-Polynesian *Rambia 'sago palm'.[7]
Arnold (2018) reconstructs tone for Proto-Ma'ya-Matbat and Proto-Ambel, but not for Proto-SHWNG. Other thantonogenesis, these proto-languages had also gone through monosyllabization throughapocope.[7]
The VRK Mutation is characteristic of most SHWNG languages (except for the RASH languages), where the phonemes/β/,/r/, and/k/ surface as the prenasalized voiced stops[mb],[nd], and[ŋg] in various cluster environments.[8] The mutation is found in theAmbai,Ansus,Biak,Busami,Dusner,Kurudu,Marau,Meoswar,Moor,Munggui,Papuma,Pom,Roon,Roswar (possibly equivalent toMeoswar),Serewen (possibly a dialect ofPom),Serui-Laut,Umar,Wamesa,Warembori,Waropen,Wooi,Yaur,Yerisiam, andYoke languages.[9]
Kamholz notes that SHWNG languages have relatively low lexical retention rates fromProto-Malayo-Polynesian, pointing to significant influence from non-Austronesian Papuan languages.
Reconstruction of subject markers and inalienable possessive markers for Proto-South Halmahera–West New Guinea according to Kamholz (2015). Note that V = vocalic conjugation, C = consonantal conjugation:
| 1sg. | *y-,*ya- (V),*k-,*-y- (C) | 1pl. | *t- (incl.),*am- (excl.) |
| 2sg. | *aw- (V),*a- (C) | 2pl. | *m- |
| 3sg. | *y- (V),*i- (C) | 3pl. | *si- |
| 1sg. | *-ku | 1pl. | *-nd,*ta- (incl.),*-mami? (excl.) |
| 2sg. | *-mu | 2pl. | *-meu? |
| 3sg. | *-∅ | 3pl. | *-ndri,*si- |
Reconstruction of lexemes found in Proto-South Halmahera–West New Guinea according to Arnold (2025).[10]
| Proto-SHWNG | Gloss |
|---|---|
| *Ropak | 'to fly' |
| *maoti | 'low tide' |
Reconstruction of innovative lexemes found in Proto-South Halmahera–West New Guinea according to Kamholz (2024).
| Proto-SHWNG | Gloss |
|---|---|
| *aka | 'bite' |
| *alai, *salai | 'dig' |
| *am, *em | 'see' |
| *as | 'swim' |
| *asan | 'sun; day' |
| *ata | 'to smoke (food)' |
| *ba | 'big' |
| *bisik | 'sick' |
| *bus | 'white' |
| *dum | 'drink' |
| *el | 'mountain' |
| *iap | 'k.o. brown fish' |
| *katem | 'one' |
| *lali | 'dirty' |
| *lan | 'song' |
| *le | 'land(ward)' |
| *ma-lom | 'wet' |
| *ma-sun | 'heavy' |
| *tuat | 'buy' |
| *una | 'know' |
| *utin | 'hundred' |
Reconstruction of numerals in Proto-South Halmahera–West New Guinea according to Barlow (2022).
| Proto-SHWNG | Gloss |
|---|---|
| *asa, *esa, *isa | 'one' |
| *duha (= PMP *duha) | 'two' |
| *tolu | 'three' |
| *pat | 'four' |
| *lima | 'five' |
| *onəm | 'six' |
| *pitu | 'seven' |
| *walu | 'eight' |
| *siwa | 'nine' |