South Australia (commonly abbreviated asSA) is astate in the southern central part ofAustralia. With a total land area of 984,310 square kilometres (380,044 sq mi),[6] it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, which includes some of the mostarid parts of the continent, and with 1.5 million people,[3] it is the fifth-largest of the states and territories by population. This population is the second-most highly centralized in the nation afterWestern Australia, with more than 67% of South Australians living in the capitalAdelaide or its environs. Other population centres in the state are relatively small;Mount Gambier, the second-largest centre, has a population of 26,878.[7]
The state comprises less than 6.7% of the Australian population and ranks fifth in population among the six states and two territories. The majority of its people reside in greater Metropolitan Adelaide. Most of the remainder are settled in fertile areas along the south-eastern coast andRiver Murray. The state's colonial origins are unique in Australia asa freely settled, planned British province,[8] rather than as aconvict settlement. Colonial government commenced on 28 December 1836, when the members of the council were sworn in near theOld Gum Tree.[9]
As with the rest of the continent, the region has a long history ofhuman occupation by numerous tribes and languages. TheSouth Australian Company established a temporary settlement atKingscote,Kangaroo Island, on 26 July 1836, five months before Adelaide was founded.[10] The guiding principle behind settlement was that ofsystematic colonisation, a theory espoused byEdward Gibbon Wakefield that was later employed by theNew Zealand Company.[11] The goal was to establish the province as a centre of civilisation for free immigrants, promising civil liberties and religious tolerance. Although its history has been marked by periods of economic hardship, South Australia has remained politically innovative and culturally vibrant. Today, it is known for its fine wine and numerous cultural festivals. The state's economy is dominated by the agricultural, manufacturing and mining industries.
European settlers with Aboriginal Australians, 1850
Evidence of human activity in South Australia dates back as far as 2,000 years, withflint mining activity and rock art in theKoonalda Cave on theNullarbor Plain. In addition wooden spears and tools were made in an area now covered inpeatbog in the South East.Kangaroo Island was inhabited long before the island was cut off byrising sea levels.[12] According tomitochondrial DNA research, Aboriginal people reachedEyre Peninsula 49,000-45,000 years ago from both the east (clockwise, along the coast, from northern Australia) and the west (anti-clockwise).[13]: 189
The first recorded European sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when the Dutch ship theGulden Zeepaert, captained byFrançois Thijssen, examined and mapped a section of the coastline as far east as theNuyts Archipelago. Thijssen named the whole of the country eastward of the Leeuwin "Nuyts Land", after a distinguished passenger on board; the Hon.Pieter Nuyts].[14]
The coastline of South Australia was first mapped byMatthew Flinders andNicolas Baudin in 1802, excepting the inlet later named thePort Adelaide River which was first discovered in 1831 by CaptainCollet Barker and later accurately charted in 1836–37 by ColonelWilliam Light, leader of the South Australian Colonisation Commissioners' 'First Expedition' and first Surveyor-General of South Australia.
The land which now forms the state of South Australia was claimed for Britain in 1788 as part of the colony ofNew South Wales. Although the new colony included almost two-thirds of the continent, early settlements were all on the eastern coast and only a few intrepid explorers ventured this far west. It took more than forty years before any serious proposal to establish settlements in the south-western portion of New South Wales were put forward.
On 15 August 1834, theBritish Parliament passed theSouth Australia Act 1834 (Foundation Act), which empowered His Majesty to erect and establish a province or provinces in southern Australia. The act stated that the land between 132° and 141° east longitude and from 26° south latitude to the southern ocean would be allotted to the intended colony, and it would be convict-free.[15]
Charles Sturt's expedition leaving Adelaide for central Australia, 1844
In contrast to the rest of Australia,terra nullius did not apply to the new province. TheLetters Patent,[16] which used the enabling provisions of the South Australia Act 1834 to fix the boundaries of the Province of South Australia, provided that "nothing in those our Letters Patent shall affect or be construed to affect the rights of any Aboriginal Natives of the said Province to the actual occupation and enjoyment in their own Persons or in the Persons of their Descendants of any Lands therein now actually occupied or enjoyed by such Natives."[16] Although the patent guaranteed land rights under force of law for the indigenous inhabitants, it was ignored by the South Australian Company authorities and squatters.[17] Despite strong reference to the rights of the native population in the initial proclamation by the Governor, there were many conflicts and deaths in theAustralian Frontier Wars in South Australia.
Survey was required before settlement of the province, and the Colonisation Commissioners for South Australia appointed William Light as the leader of its 'First Expedition', tasked with examining 1500 miles of the South Australian coastline and selecting the best site for the capital, and with then planning and surveying the site of the city into one-acre Town Sections and its surrounds into 134-acre Country Sections.
Eager to commence the establishment of their whale and seal fisheries, the South Australian Company sought, and obtained, the Commissioners' permission to send Company ships to South Australia, in advance of the surveys and ahead of the Commissioners' colonists.
The company's settlement of seven vessels and 636 people was temporarily made at Kingscote on Kangaroo Island, until the official site of the capital was selected by William Light, where the City of Adelaide is currently located. The firstimmigrants arrived atHoldfast Bay (near the present dayGlenelg) in November 1836.
The commencement of colonial government was proclaimed on 28 December 1836, now known asProclamation Day.
South Australia is the only Australian state to have never received British convicts. However, some emancipated or escaped convicts or expirees made their own way there, and constituted 1–2% of the early population.[18] The plan for the province was that it would be an experiment in reform, addressing the problems perceived in British society. There was to be religious freedom and no established religion. Sales of land to colonists created an Emigration Fund to pay the costs of transferring a poor young labouring population to South Australia. In early 1838 the colonists became concerned after it was reported that convicts who had escaped from the eastern states may make their way to South Australia. TheSouth Australia Police was formed in April 1838 to protect the community and enforce government regulations. Their principal role was to run the first temporary gaol, a two-room hut.[19]
The currentflag of South Australia was adopted on 13 January 1904, and is a British blue ensigndefaced with the state badge. The badge is described as apiping shrike with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of Adelaide'sSchool of Design.
A satellite image of eastern South Australia. Note the dry lakes (white patches) in the north.
The terrain consists largely of arid and semi-arid rangelands, with several lowmountain ranges. The most important (but not tallest) is theMount Lofty-Flinders Ranges system, which extends north about 800 kilometres (500 mi) fromCape Jervis to the northern end ofLake Torrens. The highest point in the state is not in those ranges;Mount Woodroffe (1,435 metres (4,708 ft)) is in theMusgrave Ranges in the extreme northwest of the state.[20]
TheBarossa Valley, northeast of Adelaide. South Australia's wine industry is the largest in Australia.[21]The differentKöppen climate types in South Australia
In 1863, that part of New South Wales to the north of South Australia was annexed to South Australia, by letters patent, as the "Northern Territory of South Australia", which became shortened to the Northern Territory on6 July 1863.[23] The Northern Territory was handed to the federal government in 1911 and became a separate territory.
According to Australian maps, South Australia's south coast is flanked by theSouthern Ocean, but official international consensus defines the Southern Ocean as extending north from the pole only to 60°S or 55°S, at least 17 degrees of latitude further south than the most southern point of South Australia. Thus the south coast is officially adjacent to the south-most portion of the Indian Ocean.SeeSouthern Ocean: Existence and definitions.
The southern part of the state has aMediterranean climate, while the rest of the state has either anarid orsemi-arid climate.[24] South Australia's main temperature range is 29 °C (84 °F) in January and 15 °C (59 °F) in July. The highest maximum temperature ever recorded was 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) atOodnadatta on 2 January 1960, which is the highest official temperature recorded in Australia. The lowest minimum temperature was −8.2 °C (17.2 °F) atYongala on 20 July 1976.[25] The region's overall dry weather is owed to theAustralian High on the Great Australian Bight.
Flinders Medical Centre. The health care sector is a major employer in South Australia's economy.
As of 2016, South Australia had 746,105 people employed out of a total workforce of 806,593, giving an unemployment rate of 7.5%. South Australia's largest employment sector is health care and social assistance, making up 14.8% of the state's total employment, followed by retail (10.7%), education and training (8.6%), manufacturing (8%), and construction (7.6%).[27] South Australia's economy relies on exports more than any other state in Australia.[28]
South Australia'scredit rating was upgraded to AAA byStandard & Poor's in September 2004 and to AAA byMoody's in November 2004, the highest credit ratings achievable by any company or sovereign. The state had previously lost these ratings in the State Bank collapse. However, in 2012 Standard & Poor's downgraded the state's credit rating to AA+ due to declining revenues, new spending initiatives and a weaker than expected budgetary outlook.[29]
South Australia receives the least amount of federal funding for its local road network of all states on a per capita and a per kilometre basis.[30]
Wheat fields atNuriootpa. Agriculture is a large industry for the state.Sunflower crop in the Adelaide Hills
During 2019–20: South Australia's gross state product (GSP) fell 1.4% in chain volume (real) terms (nationally, gross domestic product (GDP) fell 0.3%).[31] South Australia came out of theCOVID-19 recession better than the other Australian states, with the economy growing by 3.9% in the 2020–21 financial year. This was the first time since theAustralian Bureau of Statistics began collecting data in 1990 that South Australia had outperformed the other states. The recovery was driven in part by growth in the agricultural sector, which increased its production by almost 24% thanks to the end of a drought.[32]
South Australia has the lead over other Australian states for its commercialisation and commitment torenewable energy. It is now the leading producer ofwind power in Australia.[36] Renewable energy is a growing source of electricity in South Australia, and there is potential for growth from this particular industry of the state's economy. TheHornsdale Power Reserve is a bank of grid-connected batteries adjacent to theHornsdale Wind Farm in South Australia's Mid-North region. At the time of construction in late 2017, it was billed as the largest lithium-ion battery in the world.[37]
TheOlympic Dam mine nearRoxby Downs in northern South Australia is the largest deposit ofuranium in the world, possessing more than a third of the world's low-cost recoverable reserves and 70% of Australia's. The mine, owned and operated byBHP, presently accounts for 9% of global uranium production.[38][39] The Olympic Dam mine is also the world's fourth-largest remaining copper deposit, and the world's fifth largest gold deposit.[40] There was a proposal to vastly expand the operations of the mine, making it the largest open-cut mine in the world,[41] but in 2012 the BHP Billiton board decided not to go ahead with it at that time due to then lower commodity prices.[42]
The remote town ofCoober Pedy produces moreopal than anywhere else in the world. Opal was first discovered near the town in 1915, and the town became the site of an opal rush, enticing immigrants from southern and eastern Europe in the aftermath ofWorld War II.[43]
Higher education and research in Adelaide forms an important part of South Australia's economy. TheSouth Australian Government and educational institutions have attempted to position Adelaide asAustralia's education hub and have marketed it as aLearning City.[44] The number of international students studying in Adelaide has increased rapidly in recent years to 30,726 in 2015, of which 1,824 were secondary school students.[45] Foreign institutions have been attracted to set up campuses to increase its attractiveness as an education hub.[46][47] Adelaide is the birthplace of three Nobel laureates,more than any other Australian city: physicistWilliam Lawrence Bragg and pathologistsHoward Florey andRobin Warren, all of whom completed secondary and tertiary education atSt Peter's College and theUniversity of Adelaide.
Adelaide is home to research institutes, including theRoyal Institution of Australia, established in 2009 as a counterpart to the two-hundred-year-oldRoyal Institution of Great Britain.[48] Most of the research organisations are clustered in the Adelaide metropolitan area:
Research Park atThebarton: businesses involved in materials engineering, biotechnology, environmental services, information technology, industrial design, laser/optics technology, health products, engineering services, radar systems, telecommunications and petroleum services.
Science Park (adjacent to Flinders University): Playford Capital.
Initially, theGovernor of South Australia held almost total power, derived from the letters patent of the imperial government to create the colony. He was accountable only to the BritishColonial Office, and thus democracy did not exist in the colony. A new body was created to advise the governor on the administration of South Australia in 1843 called the Legislative Council.[58] It consisted of three representatives of the British Government and four colonists appointed by the governor. The governor retained total executive power.
In 1851, the Imperial Parliament enacted theAustralian Colonies Government Act, which allowed for the election of representatives to each of the colonial legislatures and the drafting of a constitution to properly create representative and responsible government in South Australia. Later that year, propertied male colonists were allowed to vote for 16 members on a new 24 seat Legislative Council. Eight members continued to be appointed by the governor.
Old Parliament House in 1872
The main responsibility of this body was to draft a constitution for South Australia. The body drafted the most democratic constitution ever seen in the British Empire and provided for universal manhoodsuffrage.[59] It created the bicameralParliament of South Australia. For the first time in the colony, the executive was elected by the people, and the colony used theWestminster system, where the government is the party or coalition that exerts a majority in the House of Assembly. The Legislative Council remained a predominantly conservative chamber elected by property owners.
Women's suffrage in Australia took a leap forward –enacted in 1895 and taking effect from the1896 colonial election, South Australia was the first government in Australia and only the second in the world afterNew Zealand to allow women to vote, and the first in the world to allow women to stand for election.[60] In 1897Catherine Helen Spence was the first woman in Australia to be a candidate for political office when she was nominated to be one of South Australia's delegates to the conventions that drafted the constitution. South Australia became an original state of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901.
Although the lower house had universal suffrage, the upper house, the Legislative Council, remained the exclusive domain of property owners until theLabor government ofDon Dunstan managed to achieve reform of the chamber in 1973. Property qualifications were removed and the Council became a body elected viaproportional representation by a single state-wide electorate.[61]Since the following1975 South Australian state election, no one party has had control of the state's upper house with the balance of power controlled by a variety of minor parties and independents.
Local government in South Australia is established by theConstitution Act 1934 (SA), theLocal Government Act 1999 (SA), and theLocal Government (Elections) Act 1999 (SA).[62] South Australia contains68 councils and 6 Aboriginal and outback communities.[63] Local councils, elected on a four-yearly basis, are responsible for local roads and stormwater management, waste collection, planning and development, fire prevention and hazard management, dog and cat management and control, parking control, public health and food inspections, and other services for their local communities.[62] Councils have the power to raise revenue for their activities, which is mostly achieved through "council rates", a tax based on property valuations. Council rates make up about 70% of council revenue, but account for less than 4% of total taxes paid by Australians.[64]
28.9% of the population was born overseas at the 2016 census. The five largest groups of overseas-born were fromEngland (5.8%), India (1.6%), China (1.5%), Italy (1.1%) andVietnam (0.9%).[65][66]
South Australia was the first Australian colony not to have an official state religion,[71] and the colony became attractive to people who had experienced religious discrimination, includingMethodists andUnitarians. South Australia also had thousands ofPrussianOld Lutheran immigrants, some of whom established their own form of Lutheranism. As a result, theLutheran Church of Australia remains separate from the German Lutheran church to this day.[72] South Australia was the location of the first Muslim mosque in Australia.[71]
Most of the state's original colonists were Christian, but of many denominations, most with their own meeting place in the city square. Adelaide has been known as the "City of Churches" since at least 1868.[73] Some of the oldest remaining buildings in the city are churches.[74]
On 1 January 2009, the school leaving age was raised to 17 (having previously been 15 and then 16).[75] Education is compulsory for all children until age 17, unless they are working or undergoing other training. The majority of students stay on to complete theirSouth Australian Certificate of Education (SACE). School education is the responsibility of the South Australian government, but the public and private education systems are funded jointly by it and theCommonwealth Government.
The South Australian Government provides, to schools on a per student basis, 89% of the total Government funding while the Commonwealth contributes 11%. Since the early 1970s, it has been an ongoing controversy[76] that 68% of Commonwealth funding (increasing to 75% by 2008) goes to private schools that are attended by 32% of the states students.[77] Private schools often counter this by saying that they receive less State Government funding than public schools, and in 2004 the main private school funding came from the Australian government, not the state government.[78]
On 14 June 2013, South Australia became the third Australian state to sign up to the Australian Federal Government'sGonski Reform Program. This will see funding for primary and secondary education to South Australia increased by $1.1 billion before 2019.[79]
The academic year in South Australia generally runs from the end of January until mid-December for primary and secondary schools. The SA schools operate on a four-term basis. Schools are closed for the South Australia public holidays.[80]
The University of Adelaide is part of the Group of Eight, a company of Australia's eight leading research universities.[81] As of 2022, it is ranked by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings as one of the top 100 universities in the world.[82] It was the first university in Australia to admit women to academic courses, doing so in 1881.[81] In 2018, the University of Adelaide and the University of South Australia announced plans to merge, but these plans did not at that time come to fruition due in part to disagreements over what to name the new university and which of the university's vice-chancellors would become the vice-chancellor of the amalgamated university. The two institutions have since agreed merger terms.[83]
Tertiary vocational education is provided by a range of Registered Training Organisations (RTOs) which are regulated at Commonwealth level. The range of RTOs delivering education include public, private and 'enterprise' providers i.e. employing organisations who run an RTO for their own employees or members.
The largest public provider of vocational education isTAFE South Australia which is made up of colleges throughout the state, many of these in rural areas, providing tertiary education to as many people as possible. In South Australia, TAFE is funded by thestate government and run by the South AustralianDepartment of Further Education, Employment, Science and Technology (DFEEST). Each TAFE SA campus provides a range of courses with its own specialisation.
After settlement, the major form of transport in South Australia was ocean transport. Limited land transport was provided by horses and bullocks. In the mid 19th century, the state began to develop a widespread rail network, although a coastal shipping network continued until the post war period.
Roads began to improve with the introduction of motor transport. By the late 19th century, road transport dominated internal transport in South Australia.
South Australia has four interstate rail connections, toPerth via the Nullarbor Plain, toDarwin through the centre of the continent, to New South Wales throughBroken Hill, and toMelbourne–which is the closest capital city to Adelaide.
Rail transport was important for many mines in the north of the state.
The capital Adelaide has a commuter rail network made of electric and diesel electric powered multiple units, with 7 lines between them.
South Australia has extensive road networks linking towns and other states. Roads are also the most common form of transport within the major metropolitan areas with car transport predominating. Publictransport in Adelaide is mostly provided by buses and trams with regular services throughout the day.
Adelaide Airport provides regular flights to other capitals, major South Australian towns and many international locations. The airport also has daily flights to several Asian hub airports. Adelaide Metro[84] buses J1 and J1X connect to the city (approx. 30 minutes travel time), as well as other services to other parts of Adelaide. Standard fares apply and tickets may be purchased from a ticket machine at the airport bus stop. Maximum charge (September 2016) for Metroticket is $5.30; off-peak and seniors discounts may apply.
South Australia has been known as "the Festival State" for many years, for its abundance of arts andgastronomic festivals.[85] While much of the arts scene is concentrated in Adelaide, the state government has supported regional arts actively since the 1990s. One of the manifestations of this was the creation ofCountry Arts SA, created in 1992.[86]
Diana Laidlaw did much to further the arts in South Australia during her term as Arts Minister from 1993 to 2002, and afterMike Rann assumed government in 2002, he created a strategic plan in 2004 (updated 2007) which included furthering and promoting the arts in South Australia under the topic heading "Objective 4:Fostering Creativity and Innovation".[87][88]
In September 2019, with the arts portfolio now subsumed within theDepartment of the Premier and Cabinet (DPC) after the election ofSteven Marshall as Premier, and the 2004 strategic plan having been deleted from the website in 2018,[89] the "Arts and Culture Plan, South Australia 2019–2024" was created by the department.[90] Marshall said when launching the plan: "The arts sector in South Australia is already very strong but it's been operating without a plan for 20 years".[91] However the plan does not signal any new government support, even after the government'sA$31.9 million cuts to arts funding whenArts South Australia was absorbed into DPC in 2018. Specific proposals within the plan include an "Adelaide in 100 Objects" walking tour, a new shared ticketing system for small to medium arts bodies, a five-year-plan to revitalise regional art centres, creation of an arts-focussed high school, and a new venue for theAdelaide Symphony Orchestra.[92]
Australian rules football is the most popular spectator sport in South Australia. In 2006, South Australians had the highest attendance rate for the sport of any state, with 31% of South Australians attending a match in the previous twelve months.[94] South Australia fields two teams in theAustralian Football League (AFL): theAdelaide Football Club andPort Adelaide Football Club. The two teams have an intense rivalry called theShowdown.[95] The traditional home of Australian rules football in South Australia wasFootball Park in the western suburb ofWest Lakes, which was the home ground of both AFL teams until 2013. Since 2014, both teams have usedAdelaide Oval, near the city centre, as their home ground.[96]
TheSouth Australian National Football League (SANFL), which was the premier league in the state before the advent of the Australian Football League, is a popular local league comprising ten teams: Sturt, Port Adelaide, Adelaide, West Adelaide, South Adelaide, North Adelaide, Norwood, Woodville/West Torrens, Glenelg and Central District.
TheAdelaide Footy League comprises 68 member clubs playing over 110 matches per week across ten senior divisions and three junior divisions. It is one of Australia's largest and strongest Australian rules football associations.[97]
Cricket has a long history in South Australia, with the first matches being played in 1839. Regular club matches were organised following the establishment of theSouth Australian Cricket Association (SACA) in 1871.[98] Presently, SACA governs theSouth Australian Premier Cricket competition in addition to all forms of domestic cricket in the state. Cricket is the most popular summer sport in South Australia, with 39,000 club players at both junior and senior levels in 2023.[99]
International cricket is also held in South Australia, with matches being played at Adelaide Oval. The venue was used to host matches in both the men's1992 Cricket World Cup and2015 Cricket World Cup. Adelaide Oval also saw use during the2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. Outside of Adelaide, international cricket has also been played inBerri, South Australia withBerri Oval hosting a singular match during the 1992 Cricket World Cup.
Adelaide United represents South Australia in soccer in the men'sA-League and women'sW-League. The club's home ground isHindmarsh Stadium (Coopers Stadium), but previously played occasional games at Adelaide Oval.
The club was founded in 2003 and are the2015–16 season champions of theA-League. The club was also premier in the inaugural 2005–06 A-League season, finishing 7 points clear of the rest of the competition, before finishing 3rd in the finals. Adelaide United was also a Grand Finalist in the 2006–07 and 2008–09 seasons. Adelaide is the only A-League club to have progressed past the group stages of theAsian Champions League on more than one occasion.[100]
Mount Gambier also has a national basketball team – the Mount Gambier Pioneers. The Pioneers play at the Icehouse (Bern Bruning Basketball Stadium), which seats over 1,000 people and is also home to the Mount Gambier Basketball Association. The Pioneers won the South Conference in 2003 and the Final in 2003; this team was rated second in the top five teams to have ever played in the league. In 2012, the club entered its 25th season, with a roster of 10 senior players (two imports) and three development squad players.
Mallala Motor Sport Park, a permanent circuit located near the town ofMallala, 58 km north of Adelaide, caters for both state and national level motor sport throughout the year.
South Australia's only professional rugby league team, theAdelaide Rams, had a short but eventful existence. After debuting in theSuper League competition in1997, in1998 they were selected to join the 20-teamNational Rugby League; however they were to be axed from the 1999 season as part of a rationalisation of teams (from 20 to 14) in the competition.
At present however, theSouth Australian Rugby League still operates a local semi-professional competition consisting of both junior and adult teams from across Adelaide.
Sixty-three percent of South Australian children took part in organised sports in 2002–2003.[104]
TheATP Adelaide was a tennis tournament held from 1972 to 2008 that then moved to Brisbane. Since 2020, South Australia has hosted theAdelaide International tennis tournament. Also, theRoyal Adelaide Golf Club has hosted nine editions of theAustralian Open, with the most recent being in 1998.
Crime statistics for all categories of offence in the state are provided on the SAPOL website, in the form of rolling 12-month totals.[106] Crime statistics from the 2017–18 nationalABS Crime Victimisation Survey show that between 2008–09 and 2017–18, the rate of victimisation in South Australia declined for assault and most household crime types.[107]
In 2013,Adelaide was ranked the safest capital city in Australia.[108]
^In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, England, Scotland, China and the Special Administrative Regions ofHong Kong andMacau are listed separately
^As a percentage of 1,227,355 persons who nominated their ancestry at the 2016 census.
^The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of theAnglo-Celtic group.[70]
^abOf any ancestry. Includes those identifying asAboriginal Australians orTorres Strait Islanders. Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
^R.J. Lampert (1979): Aborigines.In Tyler, M.J.,Twidale, C.R. & Ling, J.K. (Eds)Natural History of Kangaroo Island. Royal Society of South Australia Inc.ISBN0-9596627-1-5
^Australian Geographical Society.; Australian National Publicity Association.; Australian National Travel Association. (1934),Walkabout, Australian National Travel Association, retrieved7 January 2019
^Ngadjuri Walpa Juri Lands and Heritage Association (n.d.).Gnadjuri. SASOSE Council Inc.ISBN978-0-646-42821-5.
^Sendziuk, P. (2012): No convicts here: reconsidering South Australia's foundation myth.In: Foster, R. & Sendziuk, P. (Eds.)Turning points: chapters in South Australian history. Wakefield Press.ISBN978 1 74305 119 1
^"Climate and Weather".Government of South Australia. Atlas South Australia. 28 April 2004. Archived fromthe original on 15 March 2010. Retrieved6 December 2009.
^Lewis, Dave.""Crop and Pasture Report South Australia, 2021-22 Harvest""(PDF).Government of South Australia, Department of Primary Industries and Regions. South Australian Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA). Retrieved17 November 2022.
^"Grape and wine".Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA). The Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA). 14 May 2022. Retrieved16 January 2023.
^"The Week's News".Adelaide Observer. Vol. XXVI, no. 1389. South Australia. 16 May 1868. p. 9. Retrieved12 April 2023 – via National Library of Australia. Earlier instances may be found without capital "C"s.
^Lensink, Michelle (26 November 2003)."Laidlaw, Hon. Diana".Hon. Michelle Lensink MLC. Archived fromthe original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved4 September 2019.
^"South Australia'S Strategic Plan 2007" (Document). Government of South Australia. 2007.
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