Covering an area of 1,221,037 square kilometres (471,445 square miles), the country hasa population of over 63 million people (the6th largest in Africa).Pretoria is the administrative capital, whileCape Town, as the seat ofParliament, is the legislative capital, andBloemfontein is regarded as the judicial capital.[22] The largest, most populous city isJohannesburg, followed byCape Town andDurban.
Archaeological findings suggest that varioushominid species existed in South Africa about 2.5 million years ago, andmodern humans inhabited the region over 100,000 years ago. The first known people were the indigenousKhoisan, andBantu-speaking peoples who migrated, in waves, from west and central Africa to the region 2,000 to 1,000 years ago. In the north, theKingdom of Mapungubwe formed in the 13th century. In 1652, the Dutch established the first European settlement at Table Bay,Dutch Cape Colony. Itsinvasion in 1795 and theBattle of Blaauwberg in 1806 led to British occupation. TheMfecane, a period of significant upheaval, led to the formation of various African kingdoms, including theZulu Kingdom.
The name "South Africa" is derived from the country's geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation, the country was named theUnion of South Africa in English andUnie van Zuid-Afrika inDutch, reflecting its origin from the unification of four British colonies. Since 1961, the long formal name in English has been the "Republic of South Africa" andRepubliek van Suid-Afrika inAfrikaans. The country has an official name in12 official languages.[36][37]
Bantusettlers expanded from West Africa since approximately 3,000 BCE.[51] Settlements ofBantu-speaking peoples, who were iron-using agriculturists andherdsmen, were present south of theLimpopo River (now the northern border withBotswana andZimbabwe) by the 4th or 5th century AD. The earliestironworks in modern-dayKwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050 AD.[52] The southernmost group was theXhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan people. The Xhosa reached theGreat Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. As they migrated, these largerIron Age populations displaced or assimilated earlier peoples. InMpumalanga Province, several stone circles have been found along with a stone arrangement that has been namedAdam's Calendar, and the ruins are thought to be created by theBakone, aNorthern Sotho people.[53][54]
Mapungubwe
Around 1220, in theLimpopo-Shashe Basin, the elite ofK2 moved to settle the flat-topped summit of Mapungubwe Hill, with the population settling below.Rainmaking was crucial to the development ofsacral kingship. By 1250, the capital had a population of 5000 and the state covered 30,000 km2 (11,500 square miles), growing wealthy through theIndian Ocean trade. The events around Mapungubwe's collapse circa 1300 are unknown, however trade routes shifted north from the Limpopo to theZambezi, precipitating the rise ofGreat Zimbabwe. The hill was abandoned and Mapungubwe's population scattered.[55]
In 1487, the Portuguese explorerBartolomeu Dias led the first European voyage to land in southern Africa.[56] On 4 December, he landed at Walfisch Bay (now known asWalvis Bay in present-day Namibia). This was south of the furthest point reached in 1485 by his predecessor, the Portuguese navigatorDiogo Cão (Cape Cross, north of the bay). Dias continued down the western coast of southern Africa. After 8 January 1488, prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast, he sailed out of sight of land and passed the southernmost point of Africa without seeing it. He reached as far up the eastern coast of Africa as, what he called,Rio do Infante, probably the present-dayGroot River, in May 1488. On his return, he saw the cape, which he namedCabo das Tormentas ('Cape of Storms'). KingJohn II renamed the pointCabo da Boa Esperança, orCape of Good Hope, as it led to the riches of theEast Indies.[57] Dias' feat of navigation was immortalised inLuís de Camões' 1572 epic poem,Os Lusíadas.
In1595, the Dutch made their first contact with the coast of Southern Africa. With Portugal's maritime power declining in the early 17th century, English and Dutch merchants competed to dislodge Portugal's lucrative monopoly on thespice trade.[58] BritishEast India Company representatives sporadically called at the cape in search of provisions from as early as 1601 but later came to favourAscension Island andSaint Helena as ports of refuge.[59] Dutch interest was aroused after 1647, when two employees of theDutch East India Company were shipwrecked at the cape for several months. The sailors were able to survive by obtaining fresh water and meat from the natives.[59] They also sowed vegetables in the fertile soil.[60] Upon their return to Holland, they reported favourably on the cape's potential as a "warehouse and garden" for provisions to stock passing ships for long voyages.[59]
In 1652, a century and a half after the discovery of the cape sea route,Jan van Riebeeck established avictualling station at the Cape of Good Hope, at what would becomeCape Town, on behalf of the Dutch East India Company.[61][62] In time, the cape became home to a large population ofvrijlieden, also known asvrijburgers (lit.'free citizens'),former company employees who stayed in Dutch overseas territories after serving their contracts.[62] Dutch traders also brought thousands ofenslaved people to the fledgling colony from present-dayIndonesia,Madagascar, and eastern Africa.[63] Some of the earliest mixed race communities in the country were formed betweenvrijburgers, enslaved people, and indigenous peoples.[64] This led to the development of a new ethnic group, theCape Coloureds, most of whom adopted the Dutch language and Christian faith.[64]
Conflicts over resources between South Africa's indigenous Khoisan people and Dutch settlers began in the 17th century and continued for centuries.[65]
Dutch colonists' eastward expansion caused wars with the southwesterly migrating Xhosa nation, known as theXhosa Wars, as both sides competed for the pastureland near the Great Fish River, which the colonists desired for grazing cattle.[66]Vrijburgers who became independent farmers on the frontier were known asBoers, with some adopting semi-nomadic lifestyles being denoted astrekboers.[66] The Boers formed loosemilitias, which they termedcommandos, and forged alliances with Khoisan peoples to repel Xhosa raids.[66] Both sides launched bloody but inconclusive offensives, and sporadic violence, often accompanied by livestock theft, remained common for several decades.[66]
British colonisation, the Mfecane, and the Great Trek
Depiction of aZulu attack on a Boer camp in February 1838
Great Britain occupied Cape Town between 1795 and 1803 to prevent it from falling under the control of theFrench First Republic, which had invaded theLow Countries.[66] After briefly returning to Dutch rule under theBatavian Republic in 1803, the cape was occupied again by the British in 1806.[67] Following the end of theNapoleonic Wars, it was formally ceded to Great Britain and became an integral part of theBritish Empire.[68] British emigration to South Africa began around 1818, subsequently culminating in the arrival of the1820 Settlers.[68] The purpose of inducing new colonists to settle was primarily to increase the size of the European workforce and to bolster frontier regions against Xhosa incursions.[68]
During the early 19th century, many Dutch settlers departed from theCape Colony, where they had been subjected to British control, in a series of migrant groups who came to be known asVoortrekkers, meaning "pathfinders" or "pioneers". They migrated to the futureNatal, Free State, andTransvaal regions. The Boers founded theBoer republics: theSouth African Republic, theNatalia Republic, and theOrange Free State.[75] In the interior, theCape Colony expanded at the expense of theBatswana andGriqua, and Boer expansion caused great instability in the Middle Orange River region.[76] TheMatabele kingdom came to dominate the eastern interior, and raided theVenda kingdom.[77] The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior started theMineral Revolution and increased economic growth and immigration. This intensified British subjugation of the indigenous people. The struggle to control these important economic resources was a factor in relations between Europeans and the indigenous population and also between the Boers and the British.[78]
On 16 May 1876, PresidentThomas François Burgers of the South African Republic declared war against thePedi people. KingSekhukhune managed to defeat the army on 1 August 1876. Another attack by the Lydenburg Volunteer Corps was also repulsed. On 16 February 1877, the two parties signed a peace treaty atBotshabelo.[79] The Boers' inability to subdue the Pedi led to the departure of Burgers in favour ofPaul Kruger and the British annexation of the South African Republic. In 1878 and 1879 three British attacks were successfully repelled untilGarnet Wolseley defeated Sekhukhune in November 1879 with an army of 2,000 British soldiers, Boers and 10,000 Swazis.
TheAnglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British and theZulu Kingdom. FollowingLord Carnarvon's successful introduction offederation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874,Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as the BritishHigh Commissioner to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the Boers, and the Zululand army. The Zulu nation defeated the British at theBattle of Isandlwana. Eventually Zululand lost the war, resulting in the termination of the Zulu nation's independence.[80]
The Boer republics successfully resisted British encroachments during theFirst Boer War (1880–1881) usingguerrilla warfare tactics, which were well-suited to local conditions. The British returned with greater numbers, more experience, and new strategy in theSecond Boer War (1899–1902) and, although suffering heavy casualties due to Boerattrition warfare, they were ultimately successful due in part toscorched earth tactics andconcentration camps, in which 27,000 Boer civilians died due to a combination of disease and neglect.[81]
South Africa's urban population grew rapidly from the end of the 19th century onward. After the devastation of the wars, Boer farmers fled intoTransvaal and Orange Free State cities and constituted a white urban poor class.[82]
Anti-British policies among white South Africans focused on independence. During the Dutch and British colonial years,racial segregation was mostly informal, though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of indigenous people, including theNative Location Act of 1879 and the system ofpass laws.[83][84][85][86][87]
Eight years after the end of the Second Boer War and after four years of negotiation, theSouth Africa Act 1909 granted nominal independence while creating theUnion of South Africa on 31 May 1910. The union was adominion that included the former territories of the Cape, Transvaal and Natal colonies, as well as the Orange Free State republic.[88] TheNatives' Land Act of 1913 severely restricted the ownership of land by blacks; at that stage they controlled only 7% of the country. The amount of land reserved for indigenous peoples was later marginally increased.[89]
In 1931, the union became fully sovereign from the United Kingdom with the passage of theStatute of Westminster, which abolished the last powers of theParliament of the United Kingdom to legislate in the country. Only three other African countries—Liberia, Ethiopia, and Egypt—had been independent prior to that point. In 1934, theSouth African Party andNational Party merged to form theUnited Party, seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites. In 1939, the party split over the entry of the union into World War II, as an ally of the United Kingdom, a move which National Party followers opposed.[90]
D. F. Malan, the first apartheid-era prime minister (1948–1954)
In 1948, the National Party was elected to power. It strengthened the racial segregation begun under Dutch and British colonial rule. Taking Canada'sIndian Act as a framework,[91] thenationalist government classified all peoples into three races (Whites,Blacks,Indians and Coloured people (people of mixed race)) and developed rights and limitations for each. The white minority (less than 20%)[92] controlled the vastly larger black majority. The legally institutionalised segregation became known asapartheid. While whites enjoyed the higheststandard of living in all of Africa, comparable toFirst World Western nations, the black majority remained disadvantaged by almost every standard, including income, education, housing, and life expectancy.[93] TheFreedom Charter, adopted in 1955 by theCongress Alliance, demanded a non-racial society and an end to discrimination.
Despiteopposition to apartheid both within and outside the country, the government legislated for a continuation of apartheid. The security forces cracked down on internal dissent, and violence became widespread, with anti-apartheid organisations such as theAfrican National Congress (ANC), theAzanian People's Organisation, and thePan-Africanist Congress carrying out guerrilla warfare[95] and urban sabotage.[96] The three rival resistance movements also engaged in occasional inter-factional clashes as they jockeyed for domestic influence.[97] Apartheid became increasingly controversial, and several countries began to boycott business with the South African government because of its racial policies. The boycotts and restrictions were later extended to international sanctions and thedivestment of holdings by foreign investors.[98][99]
In 1990, the National Party government took the first step towards dismantling discrimination when it lifted the ban on the ANC and other political organisations. It released Nelson Mandela from prison after 27 years of serving a sentence for sabotage. Anegotiation process followed. With approval from the white electorate in a1992 referendum, the government continued negotiations to end apartheid. South Africa held its first universalelections in 1994, which the ANC won by an overwhelming majority. It has been in power ever since. The country rejoined theCommonwealth of Nations and became a member of theSouthern African Development Community.[100]
In post-apartheid ANC-governed South Africa, unemployment skyrocketed to over 30% and income inequality increased.[101][102] While many black people have risen to middle or upper classes, the overall unemployment rate of black people worsened between 1994 and 2003 by official metrics but declined significantly using expanded definitions.[103] Poverty among white South Africans, which was previously rare, increased.[104] The government struggled to achieve the monetary and fiscal discipline to ensure both redistribution of wealth and economic growth. The United NationsHuman Development Index rose steadily until the mid-1990s,[105] then fell from 1995 to 2005 before recovering its 1995 peak in 2013.[106] The fall is in large part attributable to theSouth African HIV/AIDS pandemic which saw South African life expectancy fall from a high point of 62 years in 1992 to a low of 53 in 2005,[107] and the failure of the government to take steps to address the pandemic in its early years.[108]
In May 2008, riots left over 60 people dead.[109] TheCentre on Housing Rights and Evictions estimated that over 100,000 people were driven from their homes.[110] The targets were mainlylegal andillegal migrants, and refugees seeking asylum, but a third of the victims were South African citizens.[109] In a 2006 survey, the South African Migration Project concluded that South Africans are more opposed to immigration than any other national group.[111] TheUN High Commissioner for Refugees in 2008 reported that over 200,000 refugees applied for asylum in South Africa, almost four times as many as the year before.[112] These people were mainly fromZimbabwe, though many also come fromBurundi,Democratic Republic of the Congo,Rwanda,Eritrea,Ethiopia andSomalia.[112] Competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing has led to tension between refugees and host communities.[112] Whilexenophobia in South Africa is still a problem, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2011 reported that recent violence had not been as widespread as initially feared.[112] Nevertheless, as South Africa continues to grapple with racial issues, one of the proposed solutions has been to pass legislation, such as the pendingHate Crimes and Hate Speech Bill, to uphold South Africa's ban on racism and commitment to equality.[113][114]
On 14 February 2018, Jacob Zuma resigned the presidency. On 15 February, ANC presidentCyril Ramaphosa became President of South Africa. On 16 March 2018, just over a month afterPresidentJacob Zuma resigned from the presidency, National Director of Public ProsecutionsShaun Abrahams announced that Zuma would againface prosecution on 16 criminal charges – 12 charges of fraud, two of corruption, and one each of racketeering and money laundering, just as in the 2006 indictment. A warrant was issued for his arrest in February 2020 after he failed to appear in court. In 2021,he was found guilty ofcontempt of court and sentenced to 15 months' imprisonment. In response, supporters of Zumaengaged in protests which led to riots leaving 354 people dead.[115]
South Africa went through a period of political and economic crisis since 2020, with some international institutions, businesses and political figures stating that the country is heading towards failed state status. Due to high unemployment, low business investment, de-industrialisation, political corruption, andstate capture.[116][117][118][119][120] The country has been undergoing anenergy crisis since 2007, resulting in routine rolling electricity blackouts due toloadshedding.[121] According to theInternational Monetary Fund, South Africa is suffering from "massive corruption" and state capture.[122] One of the main causes of instability in South Africa island distribution, black South Africans own 4% of the land despite making up 80% of the population, while white South Africans control 75% ofprivately owned land. This is a remnant of the apartheidBantustan system where black Africans were forced into reservations.[123][124][125] Since 1998, the South African government has settled 80,000 land claims from people who had been evicted from land by the previous government. In 90% of the land claim cases, people chose money instead of land.[126]
South Africa is in southernmost Africa, with a coastline that stretches more than 2,500 km (1,553 mi) and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At 1,219,912 km2 (471,011 sq mi),[134] South Africa is the 24th-largest country in the world.[135] Excluding thePrince Edward Islands, the country lies between latitudes22° and35°S, and longitudes16° and33°E. The interior of South Africa consists of a large, in most places almost flat, plateau with an altitude of between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 2,100 m (6,900 ft). It is highest in the east and slopes gently downwards towards the west and north, and slightly to the south and south-west.[136] This plateau is surrounded by theGreat Escarpment[137] whose eastern, and highest, stretch is known as theDrakensberg.[138]Mafadi in Drakensberg at 3,450 m (11,320 ft) is the highest peak. The KwaZulu-Natal–Lesotho international border is formed by the highest portion of the Great Escarpment which reaches an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft).[139]
The south and south-western parts of the plateau (at approximately 1,100–1,800m above sea level) and the adjoining plain below (at approximately 700–800m above sea level – see map on the right) is known as theGreat Karoo, which consists of sparsely populatedshrubland. To the north, the Great Karoo fades into the more arid Bushmanland, which eventually becomes theKalahari Desert in the north-west of the country. The mid-eastern and highest part of the plateau is known as theHighveld. This relatively well-watered area is home to a great proportion of the country's commercial farmlands and contains its largestconurbation (Gauteng). To the north of Highveld, from about the 25°30'S line of latitude, the plateau slopes downwards into theBushveld, which ultimately gives way to the Limpopo River lowlands orLowveld.[137]
The coastal belt, below the Great Escarpment, moving clockwise from the northeast, consists of the Limpopo Lowveld, which merges into the Mpumalanga Lowveld, below the Mpumalanga Drakensberg (the eastern portion of the Great Escarpment).[140] This is hotter, drier and less intensely cultivated than the Highveld above the escarpment.[137] TheKruger National Park, located in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in north-eastern South Africa, occupies a large portion of the Lowveld covering 19,633 square kilometres (7,580 sq mi)[141]
Drakensberg, the eastern and highest portion of theGreat Escarpment which surrounds the east, south and western borders of the central plateau
The coastal belt below the south and south-western stretches of the Great Escarpment contains several ranges ofCape Fold Mountains which run parallel to the coast, separating the Great Escarpment from the ocean.[142][143] (These parallel ranges of fold mountains are shown on the map, above left. Note the course of the Great Escarpment to the north of these mountain ranges.) The land between theOuteniqua andLangeberg ranges to the south and theSwartberg range to the north is known as theLittle Karoo,[137] which consists of semi-desert shrubland similar to that of the Great Karoo, except that its northern strip along the foothills of the Swartberg Mountains has a somewhat higher rainfall and is, therefore, more cultivated than the Great Karoo.
The Little Karoo is famous for its ostrich farming aroundOudtshoorn. The lowland area to the north of the Swartberg range up to the Great Escarpment is the lowland part of the Great Karoo, which is climatically and botanically almost indistinguishable from the Karoo above the Great Escarpment. The narrow coastal strip between the Outeniqua and Langeberg ranges and the ocean has a moderately high year-round rainfall, which is known as theGarden Route. It is famous for the most extensive areas of forests in South Africa (a generally forest-poor country).
In the south-west corner of the country, theCape Peninsula forms the southernmost tip of the coastal strip which borders the Atlantic Ocean and ultimately terminates at the country's border with Namibia at theOrange River. The Cape Peninsula has aMediterranean climate, making it and its immediate surrounds the only portion ofSub-Saharan Africa which receives most of its rainfall in winter.[144][145]
The coastal belt to the north of the Cape Peninsula is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and the first row of north–south running Cape Fold Mountains to the east. The Cape Fold Mountains peter out at about the 32°S line of latitude,[143] after which the Great Escarpment bounds the coastal plain. The most southerly portion of this coastal belt is known as theSwartland and Malmesbury Plain, which is an important wheat growing region, relying on winter rains. The region further north is known asNamaqualand,[146] which becomes more arid near the Orange River. The little rain that falls tends to fall in winter,[145] which results in one of the world's most spectacular displays of flowers carpeting huge stretches ofveld in spring (August–September).
South Africa has a generallytemperate climate because it is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, because it is located in the climatically milderSouthern Hemisphere, and because its average elevation rises steadily toward the north (toward the equator) and further inland. This varied topography and oceanic influence result in a great variety of climatic zones. The climatic zones range from the extreme desert of the southernNamib in the farthest northwest to the lush subtropical climate in the east along the border with Mozambique and the Indian Ocean. Winters in South Africa occur between June and August. The extreme southwest has a climate similar to that of theMediterranean with wet winters and hot, dry summers, hosting the famousfynbosbiome of shrubland andthicket. This area produces much of the wine in South Africa and is known for its wind, which blows intermittently almost all year. The severity of this wind made passing around the Cape of Good Hope particularly treacherous for sailors, causing many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall is distributed more evenly throughout the year, producing a green landscape. The annual rainfall increases south of the Lowveld, especially near the coast, which issubtropical. The Free State is particularly flat because it lies centrally on the high plateau. North of theVaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not experience subtropical extremes of heat. Johannesburg, in the centre of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) above sea level and receives an annual rainfall of 760 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.[147]
The coldest place on mainland South Africa is Buffelsfontein in theEastern Cape, where a temperature of −20.1 °C (−4.2 °F) was recorded in 2013.[148] The Prince Edward Islands have colder average annual temperatures, but Buffelsfontein has colder extremes. The deep interior of mainland South Africa has the hottest temperatures: a temperature of 51.7 °C (125.06 °F) was recorded in 1948 in the Northern Cape Kalahari nearUpington,[149] but this temperature is unofficial and was not recorded with standard equipment; the official highest temperature is 48.8 °C (119.84 °F) atVioolsdrif in January 1993.[150]
Climate change in South Africa is leading to increased temperatures and rainfall variability.Extreme weather events are becoming more prominent.[151] This is a critical concern for South Africans as climate change will affect the overall status and wellbeing of the country, for example with regards towater resources. Speedy environmental changes are resulting in clear effects on the community and environmental level in different ways and aspects, starting with air quality, to temperature and weather patterns, reaching out to food security and disease burden.[152] According to computer-generated climate modelling produced by the South African National Biodiversity Institute,[153] parts of southern Africa will see an increase in temperature by about 1 °C (1.8 °F) along the coast to more than 4 °C (7.2 °F) in the already hothinterland such as the Northern Cape in late spring and summertime by 2050. TheCape Floral Region is predicted to be hit very hard by climate change. Drought, increased intensity and frequency of fire, and climbing temperatures are expected to push many rare species towards extinction. South Africa has published two national climate change reports in 2011 and 2016.[154] South Africa contributes considerablecarbon dioxide emissions, being the 14th largest emitter of carbon dioxide,[155] primarily from its heavy reliance on coal and oil forenergy production.[155] As part of its international commitments, South Africa has pledged to peak emissions between 2020 and 2025.[155]
Up to 1945, more than 4,900 species offungi (includinglichen-forming species) had been recorded.[159] In 2006, the number of fungi in South Africa was estimated at 200,000 species but did not take into account fungi associated with insects.[160] If correct, then the number of South African fungi dwarfs that of its plants. In at least some major South African ecosystems, an exceptionally high percentage of fungi are highly specific in terms of the plants with which they occur.[161] The country's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan does not mention fungi (including lichen-forming fungi).[157]
With more than 22,000 differentvascular plants, or about 9% of all the known species of plants on Earth,[162] South Africa is particularly rich in plant diversity. The most prevalent biome is thegrassland, particularly on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by differentgrasses, low shrubs, andacacia, mainly camel-thorn (Vachellia erioloba). Vegetation is sparse towards the north-west because of low rainfall. There are numerous species of water-storing succulents, likealoes andeuphorbias, in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. And according to theWorld Wildlife Fund, South Africa is home to around a third of all succulent species.[163] The grass and thornsavanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the north-east of the country, with denser growth. There are significant numbers ofbaobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.[164]
Thefynbos biome, which makes up the majority of the area and plant life in theCape Floristic Region, is located in a small region of the Western Cape and contains more than 9,000 of those species, or three times more plant species than found in theAmazon rainforest,[165] making it among the richest regions on Earth in terms of plant diversity. Most of the plants areevergreen hard-leaf plants with fine, needle-like leaves, such as thesclerophyllous plants. Another uniquely South African flowering plant group is the genusProtea, with around 130 different species. While South Africa has a great wealth of flowering plants, only 1% of the land is forest, almost exclusively in the humidcoastal plain of KwaZulu-Natal, where there are also areas ofSouthern Africa mangroves in river mouths. Even smaller reserves of forests are out of the reach of fire, known asmontane forests. Plantations of imported tree species are predominant, particularly the non-nativeeucalyptus and pine.
South Africa has lost a large area of natural habitat in the last four decades, primarily because of overpopulation, sprawling development patterns, and deforestation during the 19th century. The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.94/10, ranking it 112th globally out of 172 countries.[166] South Africa is one of the worst affected countries in the world when it comes to invasion byalien species with many (e.g.,black wattle,Port Jackson willow,Hakea,Lantana andJacaranda) posing a significant threat to the native biodiversity and the already scarce water resources. Also,woody plant encroachment of native plants in grasslands poses a threat to biodiversity and related ecosystem services, affecting over 7 million hectares.[167] The originaltemperate forest found by the first European settlers was exploited until only small patches remained. Currently, South African hardwood trees likereal yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), and South African black ironwood (Olea capensis) are under strict government protection. Statistics from theDepartment of Environmental Affairs show a record 1,215 rhinos were killed in 2014.[168] Since South Africa is home to a third of all succulent species (many endemic to the Karoo), it makes it a hotspot for plant poaching, leading to many species to be threatened with extinction.[163]
South Africa is a nation of about 62 million (as of 2022) people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions.[169] The lastcensus was held in 2022, with estimates produced on an annual basis. According to theUnited Nations World Population Prospects, South Africa's total population was 55.3 million in 2015, compared to only 13.6 million in 1950.[170] South Africa is home to an estimated five millionillegal immigrants, including some three million Zimbabweans.[171][172][173] A series ofanti-immigrant riots occurred beginning in May 2008.[174][175]
Statistics South Africa asks people to describe themselves in the census in terms of five racial population groups.[176] The 2022 census figures for these groups were:Black African at 81%,Coloured at 8.2%,White at 7.3%,Indian or Asian at 2.7%, and Other/Unspecified at 0.5%.[10] The first census in 1911 showed that whites made up 22% of the population; this had declined to 16% by 1980.[177]
South Africa hosts a sizeable refugee and asylum seeker population. According to theWorld Refugee Survey 2008, published by theU.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, this population numbered approximately 144,700 in 2007.[178] Groups of refugees and asylum seekers numbering over 10,000 included people from Zimbabwe (48,400), the DRC (24,800), and Somalia (12,900).[178] These populations mainly lived in Johannesburg, Pretoria,Durban, Cape Town, andPort Elizabeth.[178]
South Africa has 12 official languages:[6]Zulu,Xhosa,Afrikaans,English,Pedi,[179]Tswana,Southern Sotho,Tsonga,Swazi,Venda, andSouthern Ndebele (in order of first language speakers), as well as South African Sign Language which was recognised as an official language in 2023.[6] In this regard, it is fourth only toBolivia,India, andZimbabwe in number. While all the languages are formally equal, some languages are spoken more than others. According to the 2022 census, the three most spoken first languages are Zulu (24.4%), Xhosa (16.6%), and Afrikaans (10.6%).[10] Although English is recognised as the language of commerce and science, it is only the fifth most common home language, that of only 8.7% of South Africans in 2022; nevertheless, it has become the de factolingua franca of the nation.[10] Estimates based on the 1991 census suggest just under half of South Africans could speak English.[180] It is the second most commonly spoken language outside of the household, after Zulu.[181]
Other languages are spoken, or were widely used previously, includingFanagalo,Khoe,Lobedu,Nama,Northern Ndebele, andPhuthi.[182] Many of the unofficiallanguages of the San and Khoekhoe peoples contain regional dialects stretching northwards into Namibia and Botswana, and elsewhere. These people, who are a physically distinct population from the Bantu people who make up most of the Black Africans in South Africa, have their own cultural identity based on theirhunter-gatherer societies. They have been marginalised, and the remainder of their languages are in danger of becomingextinct.
White South Africans may also speak European languages, including Italian, Portuguese (also spoken by black Angolans and Mozambicans), Dutch, German, and Greek, while some Indian South Africans and more recent migrants from South Asia speakIndian languages, such as Gujarati, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. French is spoken by migrants fromFrancophone Africa.
African-initiated churches formed the largest of the Christian groups. It was believed that many of the persons who claimed no affiliation with any organised religion adhered to a traditional African religion. There are an estimated 200,000traditional healers, and up to 60% of South Africans consult these healers,[187] generally calledsangoma ('diviner') orinyanga ('herbalist'). These healers use a combination ofancestral spiritual beliefs and a belief in the spiritual and medicinal properties of local fauna, flora, and funga commonly known asmuti ('medicine'), to facilitate healing in clients. Many peoples have syncretic religious practices combining Christian and indigenous influences.[188]
South African Muslims comprise mainly Coloureds and Indians. They have been joined by black or white South African converts as well as those from other parts of Africa.[189] South African Muslims describe their faith as the fastest-growing religion of conversion in the country, with the number of black Muslims growing sixfold, from 12,000 in 1991 to 74,700 in 2004.[189][190]
There is a substantialJewish population, descended fromEuropean Jews who arrived as a minority amongst other European settlers. This population peaked in the 1970s at 118,000, though only around 75,000 remain today, the rest having emigrated, mostly to Israel.[191] Even so, these numbers make the Jewish community in South Africa the twelfth largest in the world.
The adultliteracy rate in 2025 was 95%. This was the second-highest inAfrica, behind only Seychelles.[192] South Africa has athree-tier system of education starting with primary school, followed by high school, and tertiary education in the form of (academic) universities and universities of technology. Learners have twelve years of formal schooling, from grade 1 to 12. Grade R, or grade 0, is a pre-primary foundation year.[193] Primary schools span the first seven years of schooling.[194] High school education spans a further five years. TheNational Senior Certificate examination takes place at the end of grade 12 and is necessary for tertiary studies at aSouth African university.[193] Public universities are divided into three types: traditional universities, which offer theoretically oriented university degrees;universities of technology (formerly calledtechnikons), which offer vocationally-oriented diplomas and degrees; and comprehensive universities, which offer both types of qualification. There are 23 public universities in South Africa: 11 traditional universities, 6 universities of technology, and 6 comprehensive universities. There are also a large amount of FET (Further Education and Training) andTVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training)colleges in South Africa.[195][196][197]
Under apartheid, schools for black people were subject to discrimination through inadequate funding and a separate syllabus calledBantu Education which only taught skills sufficient to work as labourers.[198]
In 2004, South Africa started reforming its tertiary education system, merging and incorporating small universities into larger institutions, and renaming all tertiary education institutions "university". By 2015, 1.4 million students in higher education have been aided by a financial aid scheme which was promulgated in 1999.[199]
According to theSouth African Institute of Race Relations, the life expectancy in 2009 was 71 years for a white South African and 48 years for a black South African.[200] The healthcare spending in the country is about 9% of GDP.[201] About 84% of the population depends on the public healthcare system,[201] which is beset with chronic human resource shortages and limited resources.[202] About 20% of the population use private healthcare.[203] Only 16% of the population are covered bymedical aid schemes;[204] the rest pay for private careout-of-pocket or through in-hospital-only plans.[203] The three dominant hospital groups,Mediclinic,Life Healthcare andNetcare, together control 75% of the private hospital market.[203]
Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019.HIV/AIDS has caused a fall in life expectancy.
According to the 2015UNAIDS medical report, South Africa has an estimated seven million people who are living with HIV – more than any other country in the world.[205] In 2018, HIV prevalence—the percentage of people living with HIV—among adults (15–49 years) was 20.4%, and in the same year 71,000 people died from an AIDS-related illness.[206]
A 2008 study revealed that HIV/AIDS infection is distinctly divided along racial lines: 13.6% of blacks are HIV-positive, whereas only 0.3% of whites have the virus.[207] Most deaths are experienced by economically active individuals, resulting in manyAIDS orphans who, in many cases, depend on the state for care and financial support.[208] It is estimated that there are 1,200,000 orphans in South Africa.[208]
The link between HIV, a virus spread primarily by sexual contact, and AIDS was longdenied by PresidentThabo Mbeki and his health ministerManto Tshabalala-Msimang, who insisted that the many deaths in the country are caused bymalnutrition, and hence poverty, and not HIV.[209] In 2007, in response to international pressure, the government made efforts to fight AIDS.[210] After the2009 general elections, President Jacob Zuma appointedAaron Motsoaledi as the health minister and committed his government to increasing funding for and widening the scope of HIV treatment,[211] and by 2015, South Africa had made significant progress, with the widespread availability ofantiretroviral drugs resulted in an increase in life expectancy from 52.1 years to 62.5 years.[212]
Urbanisation
One online database[213] lists South Africa having more than 12,600 cities and towns. The following are the largest cities and towns in South Africa.
After each parliamentary election, the National Assembly elects one of its members as president; hence the president serves a term of office the same as that of the Assembly, normally five years. No president may serve more than two terms in office.[216] The president appoints adeputy president andministers (each representing adepartment) who form thecabinet. The National Assembly may remove the president and the cabinet by amotion of no confidence. In themost recent election, held on 29 May 2024, the ANC lost its majority for the first time since the end of Apartheid,[217] winning only 40% of the vote and 159 seats, while the main opposition, theDemocratic Alliance (DA), won 22% of the vote and 87 seats.uMkhonto weSizwe, a new party founded by formerPresident and ANC leaderJacob Zuma, won 14.6% of the vote and 58 seats, while theEconomic Freedom Fighters, founded byJulius Malema, former president of theANC Youth League who was later expelled from the ANC, won 9.5% of the vote and 39 seats. After the election, the ANC formed aGovernment of National Unity with the DA and several smaller parties.[218]
South Africa has no legally defined capital city. The fourth chapter of the constitution states "The seat of Parliament is Cape Town, but an Act of Parliament enacted in accordance with section 76(1) and (5) may determine that the seat of Parliament is elsewhere."[219] The country's three branches of government are split over different cities. Cape Town, as the seat of Parliament, is the legislative capital; Pretoria, as the seat of the president and cabinet, is the administrative capital; and Bloemfontein is the seat of theSupreme Court of Appeal, and has traditionally been regarded as the judicial capital;[22] although the highest court, theConstitutional Court of South Africa has been based in Johannesburg since 1994. Most foreign embassies are located in Pretoria.
Since 2004, South Africa has had many thousands of popular protests,[220] some violent, making it, according to one academic, the "most protest-rich country in the world".[221] There have been numerous incidents ofpolitical repression as well as threats of future repression in violation of the constitution, leading some analysts andcivil society organisations to conclude that there is or could be a new climate of political repression.[222][223]
The Constitution of South Africa is the supreme rule of law in the country. The primary sources ofSouth African law areRoman-Dutch mercantile law and personal law andEnglish Common law, as imports of Dutch settlements and British colonialism.[227] The first European-based law in South Africa was brought by the Dutch East India Company and is called Roman-Dutch law. It was imported before thecodification of European law into theNapoleonic Code and is comparable in many ways toScots law. This was followed in the 19th century by English law, bothcommon andstatutory. After unification in 1910, South Africa had its own parliament which passed laws specific for South Africa, building on those previously passed for the individual member colonies. The judicial system consists of themagistrates' courts, which hear lesser criminal cases and smaller civil cases; theHigh Court, which has divisions that serve as the courts ofgeneral jurisdiction for specific areas; the Supreme Court of Appeal; and the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court.
South Africa has played a key role as a mediator in African conflicts over the last decade, such as in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Comoros, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
PresidentJacob Zuma and Chinese PresidentHu Jintao upgraded bilateral ties between the two countries in 2010 when they signed the Beijing Agreement which elevated South Africa's earlier "strategic partnership" with China to the higher level of "comprehensive strategic partnership" in both economic and political affairs, including the strengthening of exchanges between their respective ruling parties and legislatures.[230][231] In 2011, South Africa joined the Brazil-Russia-India-China (BRICS) grouping of countries, identified by Zuma as the country's largest trading partners and also the largest trading partners with Africa as a whole. Zuma asserted that BRICS member countries would also work with each other through the UN, G20, and the India, Brazil South Africa (IBSA) forum.[232]
South Africa's armed forces have participated in numerous regional operations and internationalpeacekeeping missions. Historically, the former SADF played a major role in theSouth African Border War (1966–1990), conducting large-scale operations in Namibia andAngola during theCold War era. Since 1994, the newly founded SANDF has transitioned towards peacekeeping and humanitarian roles, contributing to missions inLesotho, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,Mozambique, and other African states under the United Nations and African Union.[242] These deployments have positioned South Africa as one of the continent's leading contributors to peacekeeping operations.
TheSouth African defence industry is the most advanced in Africa and among the most sophisticated in the world.[243] Coordinated by the state-ownedArmaments Corporation of South Africa (Armscor), it includes major companies such asDenel,Paramount Group, andMilkor. The industry produces a wide range of advanced systems, including armoured vehicles, military aircraft, naval vessels, and missiles, with about 80% of SANDF equipment made in South Africa.[244] The country also remains a significant arms exporter and maintains self-sufficiency in most conventional military technologies.[245]
South Africa is the only African nation to have successfully developednuclear weapons.[246] Between 1980 and 1990, six operational nuclear devices were covertly assembled before the arsenal was voluntarily dismantled in 1991, making South Africa the first country to give up its nuclear capability.[247] The country is also alleged to have conducted anuclear test over the Atlantic in 1979, known as the "Vela incident", although this is officially denied; then-President F.W. de Klerk later asserted that South Africa had "never conducted a clandestine nuclear test".[248][249] Despite dismantling its arsenal, South Africa still has the technical capability to restart itsweapons of mass destruction programme if it ever chose to do so, as itsPelindaba Nuclear Research Centre still storesenriched uranium from the former programme.[250] However, this material is now used primarily for civilian nuclear research andmedical isotope production, reflecting South Africa's commitment to the peaceful use of nuclear energy.[251][252] South Africa remains a strong advocate ofnuclear disarmament, having ratified the UNTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2019.[253][254]
Law enforcement in South Africa is primarily the responsibility of theSouth African Police Service (SAPS), the national police force operating more than 1,150 police stations and employing around 150,950 officers.[255] The SAPS is tasked with crime prevention, investigation, and national security. It also maintains an elite tactical unit, theSpecial Task Force (STF), which specialises incounter-terrorism,counter-insurgency, andhostage rescue operations. In the 2023 International SWAT Competition, the STF ranked 9th out of 55 international law enforcement teams, making it the highest-ranked African police unit and one of the world's best.[256] Alongside formal policing,South Africa has the world's largest private security industry,[257] comprising over 10,000 companies and more than 2.5 million registered personnel,[258] exceeding the combined size of both the police and the military.[259] This private sector plays a crucial role in supplementing public security amid ongoing concerns about crime and safety.[260]
South Africa continues to experience high levels ofviolent crime, among the highest in the world and it leads Africa in this regard.[261] From April 2017 to March 2018, an average of 57 murders per day were recorded, with ahomicide rate more than five times the global average.[262] Serious crimes such as armed robbery, hijackings,cash-in-transit heists, gang-related killings, andsexual violence are common.[263][264] South Africa also records one of the world's highestreported rates of rape,[265] with tens of thousands of cases each year, though many go unreported.[266] Between 1994 and 2019, more than 526,000 murders were reported nationwide.[267]Gang violence remains a major driver of the homicide rate, particularly in theCape Flats region of Cape Town, where rival groups compete over territory,drug trafficking routes, and extortion.[268] These conflicts often result in civilian casualties, with bystanders and children frequently caught in the crossfire.[269]
Despite ongoing reforms, South Africa's criminal justice system faces persistent challenges, including corruption, inefficiency, and underreporting, which have undermined public confidence in law enforcement. TheDepartment of Justice and Constitutional Development oversees the court system, while theDepartment of Correctional Services manages the country's prisons.[270] South Africa has the highest prison population in Africa,[271] with chronic overcrowding and human rights concerns frequently reported.[272] Critics argue that systemic weaknesses and uneven access to justice have fostered a culture of impunity, sustaining high crime rates and public mistrust. These issues continue to shape national debates on security, governance, and human rights.[273]
Each of the nine provinces is governed by aunicamerallegislature, which is elected every five years byparty-list proportional representation. The legislature elects apremier as head of government, and the premier appoints anExecutive Council as a provincial cabinet. The powers of provincial governments are limited to topics listed in the constitution; these topics include such fields as health, education, public housing and transport.
The provinces are in turn divided into 52districts: 8metropolitan and 44district municipalities. The district municipalities are further subdivided into 205local municipalities. The metropolitan municipalities, which govern the largest urban agglomerations, perform the functions of both district and local municipalities.
South Africa is a majortrading nation with an export-oriented economy and extensive global linkages. The country ranks among the world's top 50exporters andimporters, with trade playing a crucial role in its economic growth.[281] Its primary exports include minerals, vehicles, machinery, agricultural products, and processed goods.China is South Africa's largest trading partner, particularly for minerals and raw materials, followed by theUnited States,Germany,Japan,India, and theUnited Kingdom.[282] TheEuropean Union collectively remains a key market for South African goods, while intra-African trade continues to expand under theAfrican Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).[283] South Africa also benefits from preferential access to the United States market under theAfrican Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), which supports duty-free exports for a wide range of goods, particularly in the automotive, agricultural, and textile sectors. In addition, South Africa plays a central role inBRICS+ cooperation, hosting numerous multinational companies that use it as a gateway to the African market.[284]
Despite its economic advancements, South Africa faces deep-rooted socioeconomic challenges, including highunemployment, widespreadpoverty, and pronouncedinequality. Around 55% of South Africans live below the upper-boundpoverty line, while the wealthiest 10% hold over 70% of national wealth.[285] The country'sGini coefficient of 0.67 makes it the most unequal society in the entire world.[286][287][288] Although the government has introduced measures such as social grants and a nationalminimum wage to reduce inequality, progress remains uneven.[289][290] Nonetheless, South Africa remains the only African member of theG20, reflecting its financial importance and integration into the global economy.
Canal Walk shopping mall in Cape Town. South Africa is home to the sixth-highest number of shopping centres[291]
South Africa'sfinancial services sector is the most developed in Africa and among the strongest in theGlobal South, contributing around 20% of GDP and forming the largest and most important component of the national economy.[292][293] Johannesburg serves as the continent's financial hub, hosting Africa's largest banks and multinational corporations. Major institutions such asStandard Bank,First National Bank,Absa, andNedbank operate across several African markets and internationally.[294][295] The Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) had a market capitalization of approximately US$1.36 trillion in 2023, accounting for roughly 90% of Africa's total market value.[296] The sector is overseen by theSouth African Reserve Bank, the oldestcentral bank on the continent, which plays a key role in maintaining monetary stability.[297]
Themanufacturing sector accounts for around 13% of GDP and employs over 1.7 million people. Central to this industry is theautomotive sector, where major international companies such asToyota,Volkswagen,BMW,Ford,Mercedes-Benz, andNissan maintain large-scale assembly plants. The country produces over 600,000 vehicles per year, with more than 60% exported to Europe, Asia, and other African nations,[298] making it Africa's largestmotor vehicle producer and 20th-largest in the world.[299] Other major manufacturing industries includeprocessed food andbeverages,chemicals,textiles,steel, mining equipment, and industrial machinery.
Theagricultural sector contributes around 2.6% of GDP but holds major importance for exports and employment.[304] South Africa is a major producer ofmaize,sugarcane,citrus fruits,grapes,apples,pears,wool, andlivestock products.[305] The country is also the world'sseventh-largest wine producer, with theCape Winelands region internationally recognised for its quality wines.[306] The agricultural sector provides around 10% of formal employment and supports a wide network of seasonal and informal labourers, particularly in rural communities.[307] Increasing mechanisation and the development of sustainable farming practices are gradually transforming this traditional industry.
Themining sector has been a cornerstone of the South African economy since the 19th century and continues to play a critical role, contributing around 7.5% of GDP and over half of merchandise exports. South Africa was the world's leadinggold producer for much of the 20th century, peaking at nearly 1,000 tonnes in 1970, and still holds the world's third-largest reserves.[308] The country remains the largest global producer ofplatinum,[309]chrome,[310]manganese,[311] andvanadium,[312] and ranks second intitanium,[313]ilmenite,palladium,rutile, andzirconium production.[314] It is also among the top 10 producers ofcoal,iron ore,uranium,[315] anddiamonds.[316] The mining industry continues to attract significant foreign investment, though it faces challenges related to energy supply, infrastructure, and labour disputes.
South Africa has also made significant advances in military technology. The country pioneered modernmine-resistant ambush protected (MRAP) vehicle technology, setting the global standard for counteringlandmines andimprovised explosive devices (IEDs).[321] In aviation, South Africa played a pioneering role in the development ofhelmet-mounted display systems, integrating flight and targeting data directly into the pilot's field of view.[322] TheDenel Rooivalk military attack helicopter was also the first helicopter in the world to successfully perform a 360-degree loop, a feat previously seen as impossible.[321]
In 2024, South Africa experienced a growth in tourism numbers, with combined passenger arrivals through its various ports of entry increasing to 8.92 million people.[323]
In 2025, South Africa was rated as the 4th best country in the world for tourism, as well as the best in the Africa and Indian Ocean region, byThe Telegraph.[324]
According to theWorld Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), the tourism industry directly contributedR102 billion to South Africa'sGDP in 2012, and supports 10.3% of the country's employment.[325] 1.8 million people were employed in South Africa's tourism sector in early 2025, and this number is expected to grow significantly over the coming few years.[323]
The country has the largestroad network on the continent—about 750,000 km in total—making it the 10th-largest in the world.[327] While theSouth African National Roads Agency (SANRAL) maintains over 22,000 km of national roads, provinces and municipalities are responsible for the rest. With over 12 million registered vehicles and a road density of 16 vehicles per kilometre, urban areas experience high traffic congestion. Majorexpressways, including theN1,N2,N3, andN4, connect key cities and form part of transcontinental routes like theCape to Cairo Highway. Despite this, road safety is a major concern due to poor conditions, speeding, and inadequate enforcement.[328]
South Africa also has the largest and most developedrailway network in Africa, and the 9th-largest in the world, with a total track length of approximately 36,000 km as of 2025.[329]Freight rail is dominated byTransnet Freight Rail, Africa's largest freight rail company and South Africa's second-largest state-owned enterprise, while commuter services are handled by thePassenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA).[330][331] PRASA operates extensiveMetrorail services in major urban areas, including theSouthern Line in Cape Town. TheGautrain, a modernhigher-speed rail system that connects Johannesburg and Pretoria. South Africa is also exploring the development of futurehigh-speed bullet trains to enhance national and regional connectivity, with the first line expected to launch in 2030.[332][333]
South Africa has one of Africa's most importantmaritime sectors, with majorcommercial ports located in Durban, Cape Town, Gqeberha, Richards Bay, Saldanha Bay, and East London. ThePort of Durban is the largest and busiestcontainer port in sub-Saharan Africa, and the fourth-largest in theSouthern Hemisphere, handling approximately 4.5 millionTEUs in 2019.[341][342] ThePort of Richards Bay is among the continent's largest bulk export facilities.[343] ThePort of Cape Town is also a major hub for exports, shipping, and cruise tourism, the city also hosts the largest naval facility in Africa.[344] Port operations are managed by theTransnet National Ports Authority, which plays a crucial role in supporting both domestic logistics and international trade.[345]
South Africa has the largest and most advancedenergy sector on the African continent and also ranks as the 21st-largest producer of electricity in the world.[346] The state-owned utilityEskom, Africa's largest power company and South Africa's largest state-owned enterprise, generates around 90% of country's electricity fromcoal,nuclear,hydroelectric andrenewable sources.[347][348] Eskom was once recognised as the best electricity utility in the world in 2001, reflecting its former global standing.[349]
The country's energy mix remains heavily dependent on coal, which supplies roughly three-quarters of total generation. South Africa operates some of the world's largest and most sophisticatedcoal-fired power stations,[350][351] includingKusile—the world's fourth-largest and most expensive coal plant—as well asMedupi,Kendal andMajuba.[352][353] The nation also runs theKoeberg Nuclear Power Station, Africa's first and onlynuclear plant, providing about 5% of national electricity.[354] In recent years, an increasing number ofindependent power producers (IPPs) in thesolar,wind and hydro sectors have been introduced to supplement Eskom's generation capacity and diversify the national grid.[355]
The country has experienced aprolonged energy crisis marked byrolling blackouts, supply shortages and grid instability. Eskom introduced stagedload-shedding in 2007 to avert collapse of the entire grid, and the situation peaked in recent years.[357] Former CEOAndré de Ruyter sought to reform the utility, but faced significant internal resistance, sabotage and operational breakdowns.[358][359][360] In response, the government declared a national state of disaster, deployed security forces to key plants and began intensive maintenance and turnaround efforts.[361] By early 2024, these measures had helped stabilise the grid and reduce outages for the first time in over a decade.[362][363]
Looking ahead, South Africa is aiming to phase out much of its coal-dependence and transition toward renewables and new nuclear capacity.[364][365] Eskom has announced targets to reduce coal capacity and expand clean generation by 2040, while the government has approved the construction of a new large-scale nuclear plant near Cape Town.[366] At the same time, investment in solar, wind andbattery storage is accelerating, and policy reforms are encouraging private participation and decentralised generation. Thisjust energy transition seeks to balance decarbonisation, security of supply and economic transformation.[367]
AnMTN office inNigeria. MTN is a South Africanmultinational telecom giant, the largest in Africa and among the world's leadingmobile network operators, active in over 20 countries
Themobile communications market is led by major South African operators includingVodacom,MTN,Telkom,Cell C, andRain. MTN, in particular, stands out as Africa's largest mobile network operator and one of the top ten globally, with nearly 290 million users as of 2022.[370] South Africa offers a full range of network technologies from2G to5G, with MTN, Vodacom, and Rain being the first to launch 5G services on the entire African continent.[371][372] Whilefixed-line connections have declined,fibre-opticbroadband is growing quickly through providers such asOpenserve,Vumatel,Frogfoot,Octotel, andMetroFibre.[373]Satellite internet remains available for remote regions, thoughStarlink has yet to launch locally due to regulatory restrictions.[374]
South Africa's media landscape is diverse and well-developed, comprising the public broadcasterSABC, the privatefree-to-air channelE.tv, andsatellite television providerMultiChoice, which operatesDStv across sub-Saharan Africa. The country has partially rolled outdigital terrestrial television (DTT), though full migration from analogue broadcasting has experienced delays.[375]
Two distinctive features of the South African water sector are the policy of free basic water and the existence ofwater boards, which are bulk water supply agencies that operate pipelines and sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. These features have led to significant problems concerning the financial sustainability of service providers, leading to a lack of attention to maintenance. Following the end of apartheid, the country had made improvements in the levels of access to water as those with access increased from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.[376] Sanitation access increased from 71% to 79% during the same period.[376] However, water supply and sanitation has come under increasing pressure in recent years despite a commitment made by the government to improve service standards and provide investment subsidies to the water industry.[377]
The eastern parts of South Africa suffer from periodic droughts linked to theEl Niño weather phenomenon.[378] In early 2018, Cape Town, which has different weather patterns to the rest of the country,[378] faced a water crisis as the city's water supply was predicted to run dry before the end of June. Water-saving measures were in effect that required each citizen to use less than 50 litres (13 US gal) per day.[379] Cape Town rejected an offer from Israel to help it builddesalination plants.[380][381][382][383]
The South African black majority still has a substantial number of rural inhabitants who lead largely impoverished lives. It is among these people that cultural traditions survive most strongly; as black people have become increasingly urbanised andWesternised, aspects of traditional culture have declined. Members of the middle class, who have historically been predominantly white but whose ranks include growing numbers of black, Coloured and Indian people,[384][385] have lifestyles similar in many respects to that of people found in Western Europe, North America andAustralasia.
South African art includes the oldest art objects in the world, which were discovered in a South African cave and dated from roughly 75,000 years ago.[386] The scattered tribes of the Khoisan peoples moving into South Africa from around 10,000 BC had their own fluent art styles seen today in a multitude of cave paintings. They were superseded by the Bantu/Nguni peoples with their own vocabularies of art forms. Forms of art evolved in the mines and townships: a dynamic art using everything from plastic strips to bicycle spokes. The Dutch-influenced folk art of the Afrikanertrekboers and the urban white artists, earnestly following changing European traditions from the 1850s onwards, also contributed to this eclectic mix which continues to evolve to this day.
TheSouth African media sector is large, and South Africa is one of Africa's major media centres. While the many broadcasters and publications reflect the diversity of the population as a whole, the most commonly used language is English. However, all ten other official languages are represented to some extent.
South African literature emerged from a unique social and political history. One of the first well-known novels written by a black author in an African language wasSolomon Thekiso Plaatje'sMhudi, written in 1930. During the 1950s,Drum magazine became a hotbed of political satire, fiction, and essays, giving a voice to the urban black culture.
Notable white South African authors include anti-apartheid activistAlan Paton, who published the novelCry, the Beloved Country in 1948.Nadine Gordimer became the first South African to be awarded theNobel Prize in Literature, in 1991.J.M. Coetzee won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2003. When awarding the prize, theSwedish Academy stated that Coetzee "in innumerable guises portrays the surprising involvement of the outsider."[388]
Milk tart, a traditional South African dessert made with a creamy custard filling
South African cuisine is diverse and reflects the country's multicultural heritage, incorporating influences from indigenous African, Dutch, British, Indian, and Cape Malay culinary traditions. Meat plays a central role in many dishes, with thebraai—a South African variation of thebarbecue—serving as a popular social custom across communities. Common braai staples includeboerewors (spiced sausage),lamb chops,steak,pap (maize porridge), andchakalaka (spicy relish).
Traditional dishes includebobotie, a curried minced meat dish with an egg-based topping;bunny chow, a hollowed-out loaf of bread filled with curry, originating in Durban; andpotjiekos, a slow-cooked stew prepared in a cast-iron pot over open flame. Street foods such asvetkoek,gatsby sandwiches,samoosas, andbiltong (air-dried cured meat) are widely consumed. Popular desserts includemilk tart andkoeksisters.
South Africa is the origin of several successful multinationalfast food chains. The most prominent isNando's, founded in Johannesburg in 1987, which specializes in flame-grilledperi-peri chicken and operates more than 1,200 restaurants in over 30 countries worldwide.[391] Other notable South African fast-food franchises includeWimpy,Steers,Debonairs Pizza, andChicken Licken, many of which have expanded into other parts of Africa and beyond. International brands have also become deeply embedded in South Africa's fast-food landscape: the country ranks fifth in the world for the number ofKFC outlets, with960 restaurants—behind only China, the United States, Japan, and India.[392]
In the beverage industry,Monster Energy, though marketed as an American brand, was launched by South African-born entrepreneursRodney Sacks andHilton Schlosberg, who immigrated to the United States and played a key role in the drink's global success.[393]
South Africa has also developed into a majorwine producer, with some of the world's most renownedvineyards nestled in the scenic valleys ofStellenbosch,Franschhoek,Paarl, andBarrydale. These regions attract both local and international wine lovers, contributing to a flourishing culinary tourism industry that celebrates the country's food and drink as an essential part of the South African experience.[394]
Cape Town Stadium is the 5th-largest stadium in South Africa, with a capacity of 55,000.
Sport plays a significant role in South African culture, and the country's most popular sports aresoccer,rugby union andcricket.[395] Other sports with notable support are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, mixed martial arts, tennis,ringball,field hockey,surfing andnetball.[396]
South Africa has won theRugby World Cup four times, the most wins of any country. South Africa first won the1995 Rugby World Cup, which it hosted. They went on to win the tournament again in2007,2019 and2023.[401]
^Pretoria serves as the executive capital of South Africa, hosting the Union Buildings and the offices of the President and Cabinet.[3]
^Cape Town is the legislative capital, home to the Parliament of South Africa, including the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces.[3]
^Bloemfontein serves as the judicial capital, hosting the Supreme Court of Appeal, the highest court for non-constitutional matters in South Africa.[3]
^Cape Agulhas is the geographical southernmost point of the African continent, marking the southern extremity of the Republic of South Africa.[16][17]
References
^Constitution Eighteenth Amendment Act (47665) (in English and Tswana). Vol. 697. Parliament of the Republic of South Africa. 27 July 2023.
^Lynch, David A. (2010).Trade and Globalization: An Introduction to Regional Trade Agreements. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 51.ISBN978-0-7425-6689-7.Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved25 August 2013.Southern Africa is home to the other of sub-Saharan Africa's regional powers: South Africa. South Africa is more than just a regional power; it is currently the most developed and economically powerful country in Africa, and is able to use that influence in Africa more than during the days of apartheid, when it was ostracised from the rest of the world.
^"South Africa". World Bank.Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved23 July 2021.
^Livermon, Xavier (2008)."Sounds in the City". In Nuttall, Sarah; Mbembé, Achille (eds.).Johannesburg: The Elusive Metropolis. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 283.ISBN978-0-8223-8121-1.Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved5 January 2016.Mzansi is another black urban vernacular term popular with the youth and standing for South Africa.
^"Mzansi DiToloki". Deaf Federation of South Africa. Archived fromthe original on 16 January 2014. Retrieved15 January 2014.uMzantsi in Xhosa means 'south', Mzansi means this country, South Africa
^Wymer, John; Singer, R (1982).The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-76103-9.
^Deacon, HJ (2001)."Guide to Klasies River"(PDF). Stellenbosch University. p. 11.Archived(PDF) from the original on 21 February 2011. Retrieved5 September 2009.
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^Gibson, Nigel; Alexander, Amanda; Mngxitama, Andile (2008).Biko Lives! Contesting the Legacies of Steve Biko. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 138.ISBN978-0-230-60649-4.
^Mitchell, Thomas (2008).Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194–196.ISBN978-0-313-31357-8.
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^Bentley, Wessel; Dion Angus Forster (2008). "God's mission in our context, healing and transforming responses".Methodism in Southern Africa: A Celebration of Wesleyan Mission. AcadSA. pp. 97–98.ISBN978-1-920212-29-2.
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^Schlesinger, Stephen E. (2004).Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations: A Story of Superpowers, Secret Agents, Wartime Allies and Enemies, and Their Quest for a Peaceful World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Westview, Perseus Books Group. pp. 236–7.ISBN978-0-8133-3275-8.
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^cycles, This text provides general information Statista assumes no liability for the information given being complete or correct Due to varying update; Text, Statistics Can Display More up-to-Date Data Than Referenced in the."Topic: Wine industry in South Africa".Statista. Retrieved20 July 2025.
^Mohamed, Najma (2000). "Greening Land and Agrarian Reform: A Case for Sustainable Agriculture". In Ben Cousins (ed.).At the Crossroads: Land and Agrarian Reform in South Africa Into the 21st Century. Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS).ISBN978-1-86808-467-8.
^cycles, This text provides general information Statista assumes no liability for the information given being complete or correct Due to varying update; Text, Statistics Can Display More up-to-Date Data Than Referenced in the."Topic: Wine industry in South Africa".Statista. Retrieved20 July 2025.
Economic Analysis and Policy Formulation for Post-Apartheid South Africa: Mission Report, Aug. 1991. International Development Research Centre. IDRC Canada, 1991. vi, 46 p. Without ISBN.
Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City. Richard Tomlinson, et al. 2003. 336 pages.ISBN0-415-93559-8
Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid. Nigel Worden. 2000. 194 pages.ISBN0-631-21661-8.
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