The nameKorea is derived from the shortened form ofGoguryeo:Goryeo (Koryŏ)
The nameKorea is anexonym derived from the historical Korean kingdom nameGoryeo (Korean: 고려;Hanja: 高麗;MR: Koryŏ).Goryeo was the shortened name officially adopted byGoguryeo in the 5th century[11][12][13] and the name of its 10th-century successor state Goryeo.[14][15] Visiting Arab and Persian merchants pronounced its name as "Korea".[16] The modern name of Korea appears in the first Portuguesemaps of 1568 by João vaz Dourado asConrai[17] and later in the late 16th century and early 17th century asCorea (Korea) in the maps of Teixeira Albernaz of 1630.[18]
The Kingdom of Goryeo became first known to Westerners whenAfonso de Albuquerqueconquered Malacca in 1511 and described the peoples who traded with this part of the world known by the Portuguese as theGores.[19] Despite the coexistence of the spellingsCorea andKorea in 19th-century publications, some Koreans believe thatImperial Japan, around the time of the Japanese occupation, intentionally standardized the spelling ofKorea, making Japan appear first alphabetically.[20][21]
After Goryeo was replaced by the Kingdom ofJoseon (Korean: 조선;Hanja: 朝鮮;MR: Chosŏn) in 1392, Joseon became the official name for the entire territory, though it was not universally accepted. The new official name has its origin in the ancient kingdom ofGojoseon (2333 BCE). In 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the country's official name fromJoseon to theKorean Empire (Korean: 대한제국;Hanja: 大韓帝國;RR: Daehan Jeguk;MR: Taehan Cheguk;lit. Great Han Empire). A portion of the Korean Empire's nameDaehan (Korean: 대한;Hanja: 大韓;lit. Great Han) derives fromSamhan (Three Han), referring to theThree Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.[22][23] However, the nameJoseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, even though it was no longer the official name. UnderJapanese rule, the two namesHan andJoseon coexisted.
According to Korea'sfounding mythology, the history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "Gojoseon", or "Old Joseon", to differentiate it from the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BCE by the legendaryDangun.[29][30] Gojoseon was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century.[31] Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts ofManchuria.Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BCE, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era.[30][32] In 108 BCE, theHan dynastydefeatedWiman Joseon and installedfour commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. AsLelang Commandery was destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved toward Liaodong.[clarification needed] Thus, its force was diminished and only served as a trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313.[33][34][35]
Beginning around 300 BC, theJaponic-speakingYayoi people from the Korean Peninsula entered the Japanese islands and displaced or intermingled with the originalJōmon inhabitants.[36] The linguistic homeland of Proto-Koreans is located somewhere in southernSiberia/Manchuria, such as theLiao River area or theAmur River area. Proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC, replacing and assimilating Japonic-speakers and likely causing theYayoi migration.[37]
Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state[38] and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age underGwanggaeto the Great and his sonJangsu,[39][40][41][42] who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their respective reigns, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula.[43][44] In addition to contesting control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had manymilitary conflicts with various Chinese dynasties, most notably theGoguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men.[45]
Baekje was a maritime power,[46] sometimes called the "Phoenicia of East Asia".[47] Its maritime ability was instrumental in the dissemination ofBuddhism throughout East Asia and spreading continental culture to Japan.[48][49] Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time ofGeunchogo,[50] but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.[citation needed] Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but used opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventuallyTang China, to its advantage.[51][52]
In 676, the unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla led to theNorthern and Southern States period, in whichBalhae controlled the northern parts of Goguryeo, and much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled byLater Silla. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. Balhae was founded by aGoguryeo general and formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East".[53]
Late Silla was a wealthy country,[54] and its metropolitan capital ofGyeongju[55] grew to become the fourth largest city in the world.[56][57][58][59] It experienced a golden age of art and culture,[60][61][62][63] exemplified by monuments such asHwangnyongsa,Seokguram, and theEmille Bell. It also carried on the maritime legacy and prowess of Baekje, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea, and Japan, most notably during the time ofJang Bogo. In addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on theShandong Peninsula and the mouth of theYangtze River.[64][65][66][67] However, Silla was later weakened due to internal strife and the revival of successor statesBaekje andGoguryeo, which culminated into theLater Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century.
Changdeokgung, pictured in 2014, one of the Five Grand Palaces of Seoul built during the Joseon dynasty and a UNESCO World Heritage SiteHwaseong Fortress, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in 2019
In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united byWang Geon, who establishedGoryeo as the successor state of Goguryeo.[14][15][75][76] Balhae had fallen to theKhitan Empire in 926, and a decade later thelast crown prince of Balhae fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.[77] Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable typeprinting press.[26] After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time,[78][79] in theGoryeo–Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which theTripitaka Koreana was completed and significant developments in printing and publishing occurred. This promoted education and the dispersion of knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science. By 1100, there were 12 universities that produced notable scholars.[80][81]
However, theMongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent itscrown prince to theYuan capital to swear allegiance toKublai Khan, who accepted and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince.[82] Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,[82] and thelast empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conqueredLiaoyang, and defeated invasions by theRed Turbans. However, in 1392, GeneralYi Seong-gye, who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup.
Yi Seong-gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old names ofSeoul).[83] The first 200 years of theJoseon dynasty were marked by peace and saw great advancements in science[84][85] and education,[86] as well as the creation ofHangul bySejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people.[87] The prevailing ideology of the time wasNeo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by theseonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Japan underToyotomi Hideyoshi launchedinvasions of Korea, but the advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably theJoseon Navy led by AdmiralYi Sun-sin and his renowned "turtle ship") with assistance fromrighteous army militias formed by Korean civilians, andMing dynasty Chinese troops.[88] Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, theManchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state andinvaded in 1627 and 1637 and thenwent on to conquer the destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the newQing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. KingsYeongjo andJeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century.[89][90]
In the 19th century, Joseon began experiencing economic difficulties and widespread uprisings, including theDonghak Peasant Revolution. The royal in-law families had gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state.[citation needed] In addition, the strict isolationism of the Joseon government that earned it "thehermit kingdom" became increasing ineffective due to increasing encroachment from powers such as Japan, Russia, and the United States. This is exemplified by theJoseon–United States Treaty of 1882, in which it was compelled to open its borders.
Towards the end ofWorld War II, the U.S. proposed dividing the Korean peninsula into two occupation zones: aU.S. zone and aSoviet zone.Dean Rusk andCharles H. Bonesteel III suggested the38th parallel as the dividing line, as it placed Seoul under U.S. control. To the surprise of Rusk and Bonesteel, the Soviets accepted their proposal and agreed to divide Korea.[93]
Despite intentions to liberate a unified peninsula in the1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States led to thedivision of Korea into two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea.
In the South, the United States appointed and supported the former head of the Korean Provisional GovernmentSyngman Rhee as leader. Rhee won the first presidential elections of the newly declared Republic of Korea in May 1948. In the North, the Soviets backed a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist activist,Kim Il Sung, who was appointed premier of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September.[95]
In October, the Soviet Union declared Kim Il Sung's government as sovereign over both the north and south. The UN declared Rhee's government as "a lawful government having effective control and jurisdiction over that part of Korea where the UN Temporary Commission on Korea was able to observe and consult" and the government "based on elections which was observed by the Temporary Commission" in addition to a statement that "this is the only such government in Korea."[96] Both leaders engaged in authoritarian repression of political opponents.[97] South Korea requested military support from the United States but was denied,[98] and North Korea's military was heavily reinforced by the Soviet Union.[99][100]
Korean War
On June 25, 1950,North Korea invaded South Korea, sparking theKorean War, theCold War's first major conflict, which continued until 1953. At the time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the UN, thus forfeitingtheir veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions ofChinese troops. After an ebb and flow that saw both sides facing defeat with massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. During the war, Rhee's party promoted theOne-People Principle, an effort to build an obedient citizenry through ethnic homogeneity and authoritarian appeals tonationalism.[101]
The1953 armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along thedemilitarized zone near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was ever signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll thanWorld War II or theVietnam War, making it one of the deadliest conflicts of the Cold War era.[102][103] In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war.[104]
In 1960, a student uprising (the "April Revolution") led to the resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. This was followed by 13 months of political instability as South Korea was led by a weak and ineffectual government. This instability was broken by theMay 16, 1961, coup led by GeneralPark Chung Hee. As president, Park oversaw a period of rapidexport-led economic growth enforced bypolitical repression. Under Park, South Koreatook an active role in the Vietnam War.[105]
Park was heavily criticized as a ruthless military dictator, who in 1972 extended his rule by creating anew constitution, which gave the president sweeping (almost dictatorial) powers and permitted him to run for an unlimited number of six-year terms. TheKorean economy developed significantly during Park's tenure. The government developed thenationwide expressway system, theSeoul subway system, and laid the foundation for economic development during his 17-year tenure, which ended withhis assassination in 1979.
The years after Park's assassination were marked again by political turmoil, as the previously suppressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1979, GeneralChun Doo-hwan led thecoup d'état of December Twelfth. Following the coup d'état, Chun planned to rise to power through several measures. On May 17, Chun forced the Cabinet to expand martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied toJeju Island. The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political activities, and further curtailed the press. Chun's assumption of the presidency through the events of May 17 triggered nationwide protests demanding democracy; these protests were particularly focused inGwangju, to which Chun sent special forces to violently suppress theGwangju Democratization Movement.[106]
Chun subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee and took the presidency according to his political plan. Chun and his government held South Korea under a despotic rule until 1987, when aSeoul National University student,Park Jong-chul, was tortured to death.[107] OnJune 10, theCatholic Priests Association for Justice revealed the incident, igniting theJune Democratic Struggle across the country. Eventually, Chun's party, theDemocratic Justice Party, and its leader,Roh Tae-woo, announced theJune 29 Declaration, which included the direct election of the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin against the two main opposition leaders,Kim Dae-jung andKim Young-sam. Seoul hosted theOlympic Games in 1988, widely regarded as successful and a significant boost for South Korea's global image and economy.[108]
South Korea was formally invited to become a member of the United Nations in 1991. The transition of Korea from autocracy to modern democracy was marked in 1997 by the election of Kim Dae-jung, who was sworn in as the eighth president of South Korea on February 25, 1998. His election was significant given that he had in earlier years been a political prisoner sentenced to death (later commuted to exile). He won against the backdrop of the1997 Asian financial crisis, where he tookIMF advice to restructure the economy and the nation soon recovered its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace.[109]
Contemporary history
PresidentKim Dae-jung, the 2000Nobel Peace Prize recipient for advancing democracy and human rights in South Korea and East Asia and for reconciliation with North Korea, was sometimes called the "Nelson Mandela of Asia".[109]
In June 2000, as part of President Kim Dae-jung's "Sunshine Policy" of engagement, aNorth–South summit took place inPyongyang, the capital of North Korea.[110] Later that year, Kim received theNobel Peace Prize "for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular".[111] However, because of discontent among the population for fruitless approaches to the North under the previous administrations and, amid North Korean provocations, a conservative government was elected in 2007 led by PresidentLee Myung-bak, formermayor of Seoul.[112] Meanwhile, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the2002 FIFA World Cup.[113] However,South Korean and Japanese relations latersoured because of conflicting claims of sovereignty over theLiancourt Rocks.[114]
In 2010, there was anescalation in attacks by North Korea. In March 2010 the South Korean warshipROKSCheonan was sunk killing 46 South Korean sailors, allegedly by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010Yeonpyeongdowas attacked by a significant North Korean artillery barrage, with 4 people dying. The lack of a strong response to these attacks from both South Korea and the international community (the official UN report declined to explicitly name North Korea as the perpetrator for theCheonan sinking) caused significant anger with the South Korean public.[116]
South Korea saw another milestone in 2012 with the first ever female PresidentPark Geun-hyeelected and assuming office. The daughter of former President Park Chung Hee, she carried on a conservative brand of politics.[117] President Park Geun-hye's administration was formally accused of corruption, bribery, and influence-peddling for the involvement of close friendChoi Soon-sil in state affairs. There followed a series ofmassive public demonstrations from November 2016,[118] and she was removed from office.[119] After the fallout of Park's impeachment and dismissal, elections were held andMoon Jae-in of theDemocratic Party won the presidency, assuming office on May 10, 2017.[120] His tenure saw an improving political relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the military alliance with the United States, and the successful hosting ofthe Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang.[121] In April 2018, Park Geun-hye was sentenced to 24 years in jail because of abuse of power and corruption.[122]The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the nation since 2020. That same year, South Korea recorded more deaths than births, resulting in a population decline for the first time on record.[123]
In March 2022,Yoon Suk Yeol, the candidate of conservative oppositionPeople Power Party, won a closeelection over the Democratic Party candidate by the narrowest margin ever. Yoon was sworn in on May 10, 2022.[124] He declaredmartial law on December 3, 2024, accusing the opposition of being pro-North Korean and conducting anti-state activities.[125] After several hours, the National Assembly voted to nullify the declaration in a unanimous vote of 190/0, causing Yoon to end martial law early on December 4.[126] Yoon's actions resulted inhis impeachment on December 14, 2024.[127]
South Korea occupies the southern portion of theKorean Peninsula, which extends some 1,100 km (680 mi) from the Continental and East Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by theYellow Sea to the west and theSea of Japan to the east. Its southern tip lies on theKorea Strait and theEast China Sea. The country, including all its islands, lies between latitudes33° and39°N, and longitudes124° and130°E. Its total area is 100,410 square kilometers (38,768.52 sq mi).[5]
About 3,000 islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea.Jeju Province is about 100 kilometers (62 miles) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 square kilometers (712 square miles). Jeju is also the site of South Korea's highest point:Hallasan, an extinctvolcano, reaches 1,950 meters (6,400 feet)above sea level. The easternmost islands of South Korea includeUlleungdo andLiancourt Rocks (Dokdo/Takeshima), whileMarado andSocotra Rock are the southernmost islands of South Korea.[128]
South Korea tends to have ahumid continental climate and ahumid subtropical climate, and is affected by theEast Asian monsoon, withprecipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season calledjangma, which begins end of June and lasts through the end of July. In Seoul, the average January temperature range is −7 to 1 °C (19 to 34 °F), and the average August temperature range is 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior.[132] Summer can be uncomfortably hot and humid, with temperatures exceeding 30 °C (86 °F) in most parts of the country. South Korea has four distinct seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter. Spring usually lasts from late March to early May, summer from mid-May to early September, autumn from mid-September to early November, and winter from mid-November to mid-March.
Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summertyphoons that bring strong winds, heavy rains and sometimes floods. The average annual precipitation varies from 1,370 millimeters (54 in) in Seoul to 1,470 millimeters (58 in) in Busan.
During the first 20 years of South Korea's growth surge, little effort was made to preserve the environment.[133] Unchecked industrialization and urban development have resulted in deforestation and the ongoing destruction of wetlands such as the Songdo Tidal Flat.[134] However, there have been recent efforts to balance these problems, including a government run$84 billion five-yeargreen growth project that aims to boost energy efficiency and green technology.[135]
The green-based economic strategy is a comprehensive overhaul of South Korea's economy, utilizing nearly two percent of the national GDP. The greening initiative includes such efforts as a nationwide bike network, solar and wind energy, lowering oil dependent vehicles, backing daylight saving time and extensive usage of environmentally friendly technologies such as LEDs in electronics and lighting.[136] The country—one of the world's most wired—plans to build a nationwide next-generation network that will be 10 times faster than broadband facilities, in order to reduce energy usage.[136]
Therenewable portfolio standard program withrenewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022.[137]Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt-hour. They are also more difficult to design and implement than afeed-in tariff.[138] Around 350 residentialmicro combined heat and power units were installed in 2012.[139] In 2017, South Korea was the world's seventh largest emitter of carbon emissions and the fifth largest emitter per capita. President Moon Jae-in pledged to reducegreenhouse gas emissions to zero in 2050.[140][141]
Seoul'stap water recently became safe to drink, with city officials branding it "Arisu" in a bid to convince the public.[142] Efforts have also been made withafforestation projects. Another multibillion-dollar project was the restoration ofCheonggyecheon, a stream running throughdowntown Seoul that had earlier been paved over by a motorway.[143] One major challenge is air quality, with acid rain, sulfur oxides, and annual yellow dust storms being particular problems.[133] It is acknowledged that many of these difficulties are a result of South Korea's proximity to China, which is a major air polluter.[133] South Korea had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.02/10, ranking it 87th globally out of 172 countries.[144]
The South Korean government's structure is determined by theConstitution of the Republic of Korea. Like many democratic states,[147] South Korea has a government divided into three branches:executive,judicial, andlegislative. The executive and legislative branches operate primarily at the national level, although various ministries in the executive branch also carry out local functions. Thejudicial branch operates at both the national and local levels. Local governments are semi-autonomous and contain executive and legislative bodies of their own. South Korea is a constitutional democracy.
The constitution has been revised several times since its first promulgation in 1948 at independence. However, it has retained many broad characteristics and with the exception of the short-livedSecond Republic of Korea, the country has always had a presidential system with an independent chief executive.[148] Under its current constitution the state is sometimes referred to as theSixth Republic of Korea. The first directelection was also held in 1948.
The major administrative divisions in South Korea are elevenprovinces,[e] threespecial self-governing provinces, sixmetropolitan cities (self-governing cities that are not part of any province), onespecial metropolitan city and onespecial self-governing city.
South Korea has been a member of the United Nations since 1991, when it became a member state at the same time as North Korea. On January 1, 2007, former South Korean Foreign MinisterBan Ki-moon served asUN Secretary-General from 2007 to 2016. South Korea has developed links with theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations as both a member ofASEAN Plus three, a body of observers, and theEast Asia Summit (EAS). In November 2009, South Korea joined the OECDDevelopment Assistance Committee, marking the first time a former aid recipient country joined the group as a donor member. South Korea hosted the G-20 Summit in Seoul in November 2010, a year that saw South Korea and theEuropean Union conclude afree trade agreement (FTA) to reduce trade barriers. South Korea went on to sign aFree Trade Agreement with Canada andAustralia in 2014, and another withNew Zealand in 2015. South Korea and Britain have agreed to extend a period of low or zero tariffs on bilateral trade of products with parts from the European Union in October 2023.[156]
Both North and South Korea claim complete sovereignty over the entire peninsula and outlying islands.[157] Despite mutual animosity, reconciliation efforts have continued since the initial separation between North and South Korea. Political figures such asKim Ku worked to reconcile the two governments even after the Korean War.[158] With longstanding animosity following the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, North Korea and South Korea signed an agreement to pursue peace.[159] On October 4, 2007,Roh Moo-Hyun and North Korean leaderKim Jong Il signed an eight-point agreement on issues of permanent peace, high-level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train services, highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad.[159]
Despite the Sunshine Policy and efforts at reconciliation, the progress was complicated byNorth Korean missile tests in1993,1998,2006,2009, and2013. By early 2009, relationships between North and South Korea were very tense; North Korea had been reported to have deployed missiles,[160] ended its former agreements with South Korea,[161] and threatened South Korea and the United States not to interfere with a satellite launch it had planned.[162] North and South Korea are still technically at war (having never signed a peace treaty after the Korean War) and share the world's most heavily fortified border.[163]
Historically, Korea had close relations with the dynasties in China, and some Korean kingdoms were members of theImperial Chinese tributary system. The Korean kingdoms also ruled over some Chinese kingdoms including the Khitan people and the Manchurians before the Qing dynasty and received tributes from them.[164] In modern times, before the formation of South Korea, Korean independence fighters worked with Chinese soldiers during the Japanese occupation. However, after World War II, the People's Republic of China embracedMaoism while South Korea sought close relations with the United States. The PRC assisted North Korea with manpower and supplies during the Korean War, and in its aftermath the diplomatic relationship between South Korea and the PRC almost completely ceased. Relations thawed gradually, and South Korea and the PRC re-established formal diplomatic relations on August 24, 1992. The two countries sought to improve bilateral relations and lifted the forty-year-old trade embargo,[165] and South Korean–Chinese relations have improved steadily since 1992.[165] The Republic of Korea broke off official relations with theRepublic of China (Taiwan) upon gaining official relations with the People's Republic of China, which does not recognizeTaiwan's sovereignty.[166] China has become South Korea's largest trading partner by far, sending 26% of South Korean exports in 2016 worth $124 billion, as well as an additional $32 billion worth of exports toHong Kong.[167] South Korea is also China's fourth largest trading partner, with $93 billion of Chinese imports in 2016.[168]
Following the Korean War, the Soviet Union's relation with North Korea resulted in little contact until thedissolution of the Soviet Union. Since the 1990s, there has been greater trade and cooperation between the two nations.
Korea and Japan have had difficult relations since ancient times but also significant cultural exchange, with Korea acting as the gateway between East Asia and Japan. Contemporary perceptions of Japan are still largely defined byJapan's 35-year colonization of Korea in the 20th century, which isgenerally regarded in South Korea as having been very negative. There were no formal diplomatic ties between South Korea and Japan directly after independence at the end of World War II in 1945. South Korea and Japan eventually signed theTreaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea in 1965 to establish diplomatic ties. Japan is today South Korea's third largest trading partner, with 12% ($46 billion) of exports in 2016.[167]
Longstanding issues such asJapanese war crimes against Korean civilians, thenegationistre-writing of Japanese textbooks relating Japanese atrocities during World War II, the territorial disputes over theLiancourt Rocks, known in South Korea as "Dokdo" and in Japan as "Takeshima",[169] and visits by Japanese politicians to theYasukuni Shrine, honoring Japanese people (civilians and military) killed during the war continue to trouble Korean-Japanese relations. The Liancourt Rocks were the first Korean territories to be forcibly colonized by Japan in 1905. Although it was again returned to Korea along with the rest of its territory in 1951 with the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan does not recant on its claims that the Liancourt Rocks are Japanese territory.[170] In 2009, in response to Prime MinisterJunichiro Koizumi's visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, President Roh Moo-hyun suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan in 2009.[171] A summit between the nations' leaders was eventually held on February 9, 2018, during the Korean held Winter Olympics.[172] South Korea asked theInternational Olympic Committee (IOC) to ban the JapaneseRising Sun Flag from the2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo,[173][174] and the IOC said in a statement "sports stadiums should be free of any political demonstration. When concerns arise at games time we look at them on a case-by-case basis."[175]
TheEuropean Union (EU) and South Korea are important trading partners, having negotiated afree trade agreement for many years since South Korea was designated as a priority FTA partner in 2006. The free trade agreement was approved in September 2010, and took effect on July 1, 2011.[176] South Korea is the EU's tenth largest trade partner, and the EU has become South Korea's fourth largest export destination. EU trade with South Korea exceeded €90 billion in 2015 and has enjoyed an annual average growth rate of 9.8% between 2003 and 2013.[177]
The EU has been the single largest foreign investor in South Korea since 1962, and accounted for almost 45% of all FDI inflows into Korea in 2006. Nevertheless, EU companies have significant problems accessing and operating in the South Korean market because of stringent standards and testing requirements for products and services often creating barriers to trade. Both in its regular bilateral contacts with South Korea and through its FTA with Korea, the EU is seeking to improve the current geopolitical situation.[177]
A close relationship with the United States began directly after World War II, when the United States temporarily administered Korea for three years (mainly in the South, with the Soviet Union engaged in North Korea). Upon the onset of the Korean War in 1950, U.S. forces were sent to defend against an invasion from North Korea of the South and subsequently foughtas the largest contributor of UN troops. The United States participation was critical for preventing thenear defeat of the Republic of Korea by northern forces, as well as fighting back for the territory gains that define the South Korean nation today.
Following the Armistice, South Korea and the U.S. agreed to a "Mutual Defense Treaty", under which an attack on either party in thePacific area would summon a response from both.[178] In 1967, South Korea obliged the mutual defense treaty by sending a large combat troop contingent to support the United States in theVietnam War. The two nations have strong economic, diplomatic, and military ties, although they have at times disagreed with regard to policies towards North Korea and with regard to some of South Korea's industrial activities that involve usage of rocket or nuclear technology. There had also been strong anti-American sentiment during certain periods, which has largely moderated in the modern day.[179]
The two nations also share a close economic relationship, with the U.S. being South Korea's second largest trading partner, receiving $66 billion in exports in 2016.[167] In 2007, a free trade agreement known as theRepublic of Korea-United States Free Trade Agreement was signed between South Korea and the United States, but its formal implementation was repeatedly delayed, pending approval by the legislative bodies of the two countries. On October 12, 2011, the U.S. Congress passed the long-stalled trade agreement with South Korea.[180] It went into effect on March 15, 2012.[181]
Unresolved tension with North Korea has prompted South Korea to allocate 2.6% of its GDP and 13.2% of all government spending to its military (government share of GDP: 14.967%), while maintaining compulsory conscription for men.[182] Consequently, the ROK Armed Forces is one of the largest and most powerful standing armed forces in the world with a reported personnel strength of 3,600,000 in 2022 (500,000 active and 3,100,000 reserve).[183]
The South Korean military consists of theArmy (ROKA), theNavy (ROKN), theAir Force (ROKAF), and theMarine Corps (ROKMC), and reserve forces. Many of these forces are concentrated near the Korean Demilitarized Zone. All South Korean males are constitutionally required to serve in the military, typically 18 months.[184] In additionKorean Augmentation to the United States Army is a branch of the Republic of Korea Army that consists of Korean enlisted personnel who are augmented to the Eighth United States Army. In 2010, South Korea spent₩1.68 trillion in a cost-sharing agreement with the U.S. to provide budgetary support to the U.S. forces in Korea, on top of the ₩29.6 trillion budget for its own military.
From time to time, South Korea has sent its troops overseas to assist American forces. It has participated in most major conflicts that the United States has been involved in the past 50 years. South Korea dispatched 325,517 troops to fight in theVietnam War, with a peak strength of 50,000.[185] In 2004, South Korea sent 3,300 troops of theZaytun Division to help rebuilding in northernIraq, and was the third largest contributor in thecoalition forces after the U.S. and Britain.[186] Beginning in 2001, South Korea had deployed 24,000 troops in the Middle East region to support thewar on terror.
The right toconscientious objection was not recognized in South Korea until recently. Over 400 men were typically imprisoned at any given time for refusing military service for political or religious reasons in the years before right to conscientious objection was established.[187] On June 28, 2018, the South Korean Constitutional Court ruled the Military Service Act unconstitutional and ordered the government to accommodate civilian forms of military service for conscientious objectors.[188] On November 1, 2018, the South Korean Supreme Court legalized conscientious objection as a basis for rejecting compulsory military service.[189]
A fully functioningUN Command is at the top of thechain of command of all forces in South Korea, including the U.S. forces and the entire South Korean military – if a sudden escalation of war between North and South Korea were to occur the United States would assume control of the South Korean armed forces in all military and paramilitary moves. There has been long-term agreement between the United States and South Korea that South Korea should eventually assume the lead for its own defense. This transition to a South Korean command has been slow and often postponed, although it is currently scheduled to occur in the 2020s.[191]
Its massive investment in education has taken the country from mass illiteracy to a major international technological powerhouse. The country's national economy benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree.[198] South Korea's economy was one of the world's fastest-growing from the early 1960s to the late 1990s, and was still one of the fastest-growing developed countries in the 2000s, along with Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, the other threeAsian Tigers.[199] It recorded thefastest rise in average GDP per capita in the world between 1980 and 1990.[200] South Koreans refer to this growth as theMiracle on the Han River.[201] The South Korean economy is heavily dependent on international trade, and in 2014, South Korea was thefifth-largest exporter andseventh-largest importer in the world. In addition, the country has one of the world'slargest foreign-exchange reserves.[202]
Despite the economy's high growth potential and apparent structural stability, the country suffers damage to its credit rating in the stock market because of the belligerence of North Korea in times of deep military crises, which has an adverse effect on its financial markets.[203][204] TheInternational Monetary Fund compliments the resilience of the economy against various economic crises, citing low state debt and high fiscal reserves that can quickly be mobilized to address financial emergencies.[205] Although it was severely harmed by the1997 Asian financial crisis, the country managed a rapid recovery and subsequently tripled its GDP.[206]
Furthermore, South Korea was one of the few developed countries that was able to avoid a recession during theglobal financial crisis of 2007–08.[207] Its economic growth rate reached 6.2% in 2010 (the fastest growth for eight years after significant growth by 7.2% in 2002),[208] a sharp recovery from economic growth rates of 2.3% in 2008 and 0.2% in 2009 during theGreat Recession. The unemployment rate also remained low in 2009 at 3.6%.[209]
South Korea has a technologically advanced transport network consisting of high-speed railways, highways, bus routes, ferry services, and air routes that crisscross the country.Korea Expressway Corporation operates the toll highways and service amenities en route.Korail provides train services to all major South Korean cities. Two rail lines,Gyeongui andDonghae Bukbu Line, to North Korea are being reconnected. The Koreanhigh-speed rail system,KTX, provides high-speed service alongGyeongbu andHonam Line. Major cities have urban rapid transit systems.[210] Express bus terminals are available in most cities.[211]
The main gateway and largest airport isIncheon International Airport, serving58 million passengers in 2016.[212] Other international airports includeGimpo,Busan andJeju. There are also many airports that were built as part of the infrastructure boom but are barely used.[213] There are also manyheliports.[214] The national carrierKorean Air served over 26 million passengers, including almost 19 million international passengers in 2016.[215] A second carrier,Asiana Airlines also serves domestic and international traffic. Combined, South Korean airlines serve 297 international routes.[216] Smaller airlines, such asJeju Air, provide domestic service with lower fares.[217]
South Korea is the world's fifth-largestnuclear power producer and the third-largest in Asia as of 2010[update].[218] Supplying 45% of its electricity production, nuclear research is very active with investigation into a variety of advanced reactors, including a small modular reactor, a liquid-metal fast/transmutation reactor and a high-temperaturehydrogen generation design. Fuel production and waste handling technologies have also been developed locally. It is also a member of theITER project.[219]
South Korea is an emerging exporter ofnuclear reactors, having concluded agreements with the United Arab Emirates to build and maintain four advanced nuclear reactors,[220] withJordan for a research nuclear reactor,[221][222] and with Argentina for construction and repair of heavy-water nuclear reactors.[223][224] As of 2010[update], South Korea and Turkey are in negotiations regarding construction of two nuclear reactors.[225] South Korea is also preparing to bid on construction of a light-water nuclear reactor for Argentina.[224]
South Korea is not allowed toenrich uranium or develop traditional uranium enrichment technology on its own, because of U.S. political pressure,[226] unlike most major nuclear powers such as Japan, Germany, and France, competitors in the international nuclear market. This impediment to South Korea's indigenous nuclear industrial undertaking has sparked occasional diplomatic rows between the two allies. While successful in exporting its electricity-generating nuclear technology and nuclear reactors, it cannot capitalize on themarket for nuclear enrichment facilities and refineries, preventing it from further expanding its export niche. South Korea has sought unique technologies such aspyroprocessing to circumvent these obstacles and seek a more advantageous competition.[227] The U.S. has recently been wary of the burgeoning nuclear program, which South Korea insists will be for civilian use only.[218]
South Korea is the 2nd highest ranked Continental Asian country in the World Economic Forum'sNetworked Readiness Index after Singapore—an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. South Korea ranks 9th worldwide.[228]
In 2019, more than 17 million foreign tourists visited South Korea.[229] South Korean tourism is driven by many factors, including the prominence of Korean pop culture such asSouth Korean pop music andtelevision dramas, known as theKorean Wave orHallyu, has gained popularity throughout East Asia. The Hyundai Research Institute reported that the Korean Wave has a direct influence on encouraging direct foreign investment back into the country through demand for products, and the tourism industry.[230] Among East Asian countries, China was the most receptive, investing $1.4 billion in South Korea, with much of the investment within its service sector, a sevenfold increase from 2001.
According to an analysis by economist Han Sang-Wan, a 1% increase in the exports of Korean cultural content pushes consumer goods exports up 0.083%, while a 1% increase in Korean pop content exports to a country produces a 0.019% bump in tourism.[230]
National pension scheme
TheSouth Korean pension system was created to provide benefits to persons reaching old age, families and persons stricken with death of their primary breadwinner, and for the purposes of stabilizing the nation'swelfare state.[231] The structure is primarily based on taxation and is income-related.[232] The system is divided into four categories distributing benefits to participants through national, military personnel, governmental, and private school teacher pension schemes.[233] The national pension scheme is the primary welfare system providing allowances to the majority of persons. Eligibility for the national pension scheme is not dependent on income but on age and residence, where those between the ages of 18 and 59 are covered.[234] Anyone under 18 is a dependent of someone who is covered or under a special exclusion where they are allowed to alternative provisions.[235] The national pension scheme is divided into four categories of insured persons – the workplace-based insured, the individually insured, the voluntarily insured, and the voluntarily and continuously insured. An old-age pension scheme covers individuals age 60 or older for the rest of their life as long as they have satisfied the minimum of 20 years of national pension coverage beforehand.[235]
Scientific and technological development in South Korea at first did not occur largely because of more pressing matters such as thedivision of Korea and theKorean War that occurred right after its independence. It was not until the 1960s under the dictatorship of Park Chung Hee when South Korea's economy rapidly grew from industrialization and thechaebol corporations such asSamsung,LG, andSK. Ever since the industrialization of South Korea's economy, South Korea has placed its focus on technology-based corporations, which has been supported by infrastructure developments by the government.
South Korea leads the OECD in graduates in science and engineering.[236] From 2014 to 2019, the country ranked first among the most innovative countries in theBloomberg Innovation Index.[237] It was ranked 6th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[238] Republic of Korea South Korea today is known as a launchpad of a mature mobile market that allows developers to reap benefits of a market where very few technology constraints exist. There is a growing trend of inventions of new types of media or apps, utilizing the 4G and 5G internet infrastructure in South Korea. South Korea has the infrastructures to meet a high density of population and culture; this, along with high revenues, allows South Korean-only tech startups to reach valuations of $1 billion and above, a peak usually reserved for startups growing in several countries.[239]
Total spending for research and development grew from about 3.9% ofgross domestic product (GDP) in 2013 to more than 4.9% in 2022 and was thus the second-highest in the world, only behind Israel which spent 5.9%. In 2023 the government announced a spending cut by about 11% for 2024 and the intention to shift resources to new initiatives, such as efforts to build rockets, pursue biomedical research, and develop US-style biotech innovation.[240]
Followingcyberattacks in the first half of 2013, whereby government, news-media, television station, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean governmentblamed North Korea for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011 and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.[241] South Korea's government maintains a broad-ranging approach toward the regulation of specific online content and imposes a substantial level ofcensorship on election-related discourse and on many websites that the government deems subversive or socially harmful.[242][243]
South Korea has sent up 10 satellites since 1992, all using foreign rockets and overseas launch pads, notablyArirang-1 in 1999, andArirang-2 in 2006 as part of its space partnership with Russia.[244] Arirang-1 was lost in space in 2008, after nine years in service.[245] In April 2008,Yi So-yeon became the first Korean to fly in space, aboard the RussianSoyuz TMA-12.[246][247]
Efforts to build an indigenous space launch vehicle have been marred by persistent political pressure from the United States, who had for many decades hindered South Korea's indigenous rocket and missile development programs[250] in fear of their possible connection to clandestine military ballistic missile programs, which Korea many times insisted did not violate the research and development guidelines stipulated by US-Korea agreements on restriction of rocket technology research and development.[251] South Korea has sought the assistance of foreign countries such as Russia throughMTCR commitments to supplement its restricted domestic rocket technology. The two failed KSLV-Ilaunch vehicles were based on theUniversal Rocket Module, the first stage of the RussianAngara rocket, combined with a solid-fueled second stage built by South Korea.
On October 21, 2021, theKSLV-2 Nuri was successfully launched, and South Korea became a country with its own space projectile technology.[252]
Albert HUBO, developed byKAIST, can make expressive gestures with its five separate fingers.
Robotics has been included in the list of main national research and development projects since 2003.[253] In 2009, the government announced plans to build robot-themed parks in Incheon and Masan with a mix of public and private funding.[254] In 2005, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) developed the world's second walkinghumanoid robot,HUBO. A team in the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology developed the first Koreanandroid,EveR-1 in May 2006.[255]EveR-1 has been succeeded by more complex models with improved movement and vision.[256][257]
Plans of creating English-teaching robot assistants to compensate for the shortage of teachers were announced in February 2010, with the robots being deployed to most preschools and kindergartens by 2013.[258] Robotics are also incorporated in the entertainment sector; theKorean Robot Game Festival has been held every year since 2004 to promote science and robot technology.[259]
Biotechnology
Since the 1980s, the government has invested in the development of a domesticbiotechnology industry.[260] The medical sector accounts for a large part of the production, including production ofhepatitis vaccines andantibiotics. Research and development ingenetics andcloning has received increasing attention, with the first successful cloning of a dog,Snuppy in 2005, and the cloning of two females of an endangered species ofgray wolves by theSeoul National University in 2007.[261] The rapid growth of the industry has resulted in significant voids in regulation of ethics, as was highlighted by thescientific misconduct case involvingHwang Woo-Suk.[262]
Since late 2020, SK Bioscience Inc. (a division ofSK Group) has been producing a major proportion of theVaxzevria vaccine (also known as COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca), under license from theUniversity of Oxford andAstraZeneca, for worldwide distribution through theCOVAX facility under theWHO hospice. A recent agreement withNovavax expands its production for a second vaccine to 40 million doses in 2022, with a $450 million investment in domestic and overseas facilities.[263]
South Korea had an estimated population of roughly 51.7 million in 2022.[264][265] The population more than doubled from 21.5 million in 1955[266] to 50 million by 2010.[267] However, it is expected to peak at 52 million in 2024 and decline to 36 million in 2072,[268] owing to a rapid decline in birth rates that began in 1960. South Korea's birth rate became the world's lowest in 2009,[269] at an annual rate of approximately 9 births per 1000 people.[270] Fertility saw some modest increase afterwards,[271] but dropped to a new global low in 2017,[272] with fewer than 30,000 births per month for the first time since records began,[273] and less than one child per woman in 2018.[274] In 2020, the country recorded more deaths than births, resulting in the first population decrease since modern records began.[275][276]
By 2021, the fertility rate stood at just 0.81 children per woman,[277] well below thereplacement rate of 2.1, falling to 0.78 in 2022 and 0.72 in 2023—the lowest in the world. Consequently, South Korea has seen the steepest decline inworking age population amongOECD nations;[278] the proportion of people aged 65 years and over is slated to reach over 20% by 2025 and close to 45% by 2050.[279] The low birth rate has been declared a "national emergency" and prompted the creation of a new ministry in May 2024 dedicated to reversing the trend and addressing issues related to aging, immigration, and the workforce.[268] The government has also launched various incentives to help entice families to have children, including a cash allowance for newborns and greater funding of childcare and fertility treatments.[268]
Government policy, along with a rebound in marriages delayed by COVID-19, may account for the Korean birth rate increasing in late 2024;[280] total births in the third quarter were up 8% from the same period last year, marking the largest quarterly increase since the third quarter of 2012 and the first annual rise in total fertility since 2015.[281] Data released in January 2025 show the number of births in November 2024 was 20,095, a 14.6% increase year-on-year, the highest growth rate since November 2010 (which recorded a 17.5% increase), and the third consecutive month of double-digit growth, following September's 10.1% and October's 13.4%.[282]
Most South Koreans live in urban areas following rapid migration from the countryside during the country's rapid economic expansion in the 1970s through the 1990s.[283] About half the population (24.5 million) is concentrated in theSeoul Metropolitan Area, making it the world's second largest metropolitan area; other major cities includeBusan (3.5 million),Incheon (3.0 million),Daegu (2.5 million),Daejeon (1.4 million),Gwangju (1.4 million) andUlsan (1.1 million).[284] Population density is estimated at 514.6 per square kilometre (1,333/sq mi) in 2022,[264] more than 10 times the global average.
The population has been shaped by international migration. After World War II and the division of the Korean Peninsula, about four million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This trend of net entry reversed over the next 40 years because of emigration; large numbers of ethnic Koreans live overseas, sometimes in ethnic neighborhoods known asKoreatowns. The four largest diaspora populations are inChina (2.3 million), theUnited States (1.8 million),Japan (850,000), andCanada (250,000).
South Korea is among the mostethnically homogeneous societies in the world, with ethnic Koreans representing approximately 96% of the total population. Precise numbers are difficult to estimate since official statistics do not record ethnicity, and manyimmigrants are ethnically Korean while a growing number of South Korean citizens are not.[285] The percentage of foreign nationals has been growing rapidly since the late 1990s,[286] with South Korea having one of the fastest-growing foreign-born populations: As of November 2023, there was an all-time high of 2.46 million foreign residents, accounting for nearly 5 percent of the total population, compared to 2016 figures of 1.4 million foreign residents (roughly 2.75 percent of the population).[285] Much of this growth was driven by foreign workers and international students.[285]
About 30,000 foreign born residents obtain South Korean citizenship every year since 2010; in 2023, the number of foreigners who acquired Korean nationality was 234,506, an increase of 4.8 percent from the prior year. The number of children of foreign residents born in South Korea increased by 7,809, or 2.8 percent, to 289,886.[287] Many foreign citizens ethnic Koreans:migrants from China (PRC) are the largest foreign-born group both proportionally and numerically, accounting for 56.5% of foreign nationals, but approximately 70% of these Chinese citizens areJoseonjok (조선족), PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity.[288] In addition, about 43,000 English teachers fromEnglish-speaking countries reside temporarily in Korea.[289]
Corresponding to its socioeconomic development, South Korea has experienced a dramatic increase inlife expectancy, from 79.10 years in 2008[290] (which was34th in the world),[291] to 83.53 years in 2024—the fifth highest of any country or territory.
Korean is the official language of South Korea and is classified by most linguists as alanguage isolate. It incorporates a significant number ofloan words from Chinese. Korean uses an indigenous writing system calledHangul, created in 1446 byKing Sejong, to provide a convenient alternative to theClassical ChineseHanja characters that were difficult to learn and did not fit the Korean language well. South Korea still uses some Chinese Hanja characters in limited areas, such as print media and legal documentation.
According to the results of the Korea Research's regular survey 'Public Opinion in Public Opinion', more than half of the South Korean population (51%) declared themselves not affiliated with anyreligious organizations.[3] In a 2012 survey, 52% declared themselves "religious", 31% said they were "not religious" and 15% identified themselves as "convincedatheists".[295] Of the people who are affiliated with a religious organization, most areChristians andBuddhists. According to the survey, 31% of the population were Christians (20% identified themselves as Protestants, 11% as Roman Catholics) and 17% were Buddhists.[3] Other religions includeIslam (130,000 Muslims, mostly migrant workers from Pakistan and Bangladesh but including some 35,000 Korean Muslims[296]), the homegrown sect ofWon Buddhism, and a variety of indigenous religions, includingCheondoism (aConfucianizing religion),Jeungsanism,Daejongism,Daesun Jinrihoe, and others.Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitution, and there is nostate religion.[297] Overall, between 2015 and 2024, there has been a slight rise in Christianity (down from 27.6% to 31%), a slow rise in Buddhism (from 15.5% to 17%), and a decline in the unaffiliated population (from 56.9% to 51%).[3][298][299]
Christianity is South Korea's largest organized religion, accounting for more than half of all South Korean adherents of religious organizations. There are approximately 16 million Christians in South Korea today; about two thirds of them belonging to Protestant churches, and the rest to the Catholic Church.[3] The number of Protestants had been stagnant throughout the 1990s and the 2000s but increased to a peak level throughout the 2010s. Roman Catholics increased significantly between the 1980s and the 2000s but declined throughout the 2010s.[3] Christianity, unlike in other East Asian countries, found fertile ground in Korea in the 18th century, and by the end of the 18th century it persuaded a large part of the population, as the declining monarchy supported it and opened the country to widespreadproselytism as part of a project of Westernization. The weakness of KoreanKorean shamanism, which—unlike JapaneseShinto andChina's religious system—never developed into a national religion of high status,[300] combined with the impoverished state ofKorean Buddhism, (after 500 years of suppression at the hands of the Joseon state, by the 20th century it was virtually extinct) left a free hand to Christian churches. Christianity's similarity to native religious narratives has been studied as another factor that contributed to its success in the peninsula.[301] TheJapanese colonization of the first half of the 20th century further strengthened the identification of Christianity withKorean nationalism, as the Japanese coopted native Korean shamanism into the NipponicImperial Shinto that they tried to establish in the peninsula.[302] Widespread Christianization of the Koreans took place during State Shinto,[302] after its abolition, and then in the independent South Korea as the newly established military government supported Christianity andtried to utterly oust native shamanism.
Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century.[304] It soon became a dominant religion in the southeastern kingdom of Silla, the region that hitherto hosts the strongest concentration of Buddhists in South Korea. In the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period, Goguryeo and Baekje, it was made the state religion respectively in 372 and 528. It remained the state religion in Later Silla and Goryeo. It was later suppressed throughout much of the subsequent history under the unified kingdom of Joseon, which officially adopted a strictKorean Confucianism. Today, South Korea has about 8,7 million Buddhists,[3] most of them affiliated to theJogye Order. Most of theNational Treasures of South Korea are Buddhist artifacts.
A centralized administration in South Korea oversees the process for the education of children from kindergarten to the third and final year of high school. The school year is divided into two semesters, the first of which begins at the beginning of March and ends in mid-July, the second of which begins in late August and ends in mid-February. The country adopted a new educational program to increase the number of their foreign students through 2010. According to theMinistry of Education, Science and Technology, the number of scholarships for foreign students in South Korea would have (under the program) doubled by that time, and the number of foreign students would have reached 100,000.[305]
South Korea is one of the top-performingOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries in reading literacy, mathematics and sciences with the average student scoring 519, compared with the OECD average of 492, placing it ninth in the world. The country has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.[306][307] The country is well known for its highly feverish outlook on education, where its national obsession with education has been called "education fever".[308][309][310] This obsession with education has catapulted the resource-poor nation consistently atop the global education rankings. In 2014, South Korea ranked second worldwide (after Singapore) in the national rankings of students' math and science scores by the OECD.[311] Higher education is a serious issue in South Korean society, where it is viewed as one of the fundamental cornerstones of South Korean life. Education is regarded with a high priority for South Korean families, as success in education is often a source of honor and pride for families and within South Korean society at large, and is seen as a fundamental necessity to channel one'ssocial mobility to ultimately improve one's socioeconomic position in South Korean society.[312][313]
In 2015, the country spent 5.1% of its GDP on all levels of education—roughly 0.8 percentage points above the OECD average of 4.3%.[314] A strong investment in education, a militant drive to achieve academic success, as well as the passion for scholarly excellence has helped the resource-poor country rapidly grow its economy over the past 60 years from a war-torn land to a prosperous, developed country.[315]
South Korea shares its traditional culture with North Korea, but the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of culture since the peninsula was divided in 1945. Historically, while the culture has beenheavily influenced by that of neighboring China, it has nevertheless independently managed to develop a unique cultural identity in its own right that is distinct from that of its larger neighbor on the East Asian mainland.[323] As of 2024[update], South Korea has 24UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity,[324] along with16 World Heritage Sites.[325] TheMinistry of Culture, Sports and Tourism actively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs.[326] According to the 2023 edition of thePress Freedom Index, South Korea has the second highest level of press freedom in Continental and East Asia, behind Taiwan.[327]
Industrialization and urbanization have brought many changes to the way modern Koreans live. Changing economic circumstances and lifestyles have led to a concentration of population in major cities, especially the capital Seoul, with multi-generational households separating intonuclear family living arrangements. A 2014 Euromonitor study found that South Koreans drink the most alcohol on a weekly basis compared to the rest of the world. South Koreans drink 13.7 shots of liquor per week on average and, of the 44 other countries analyzed, Russia, the Philippines, and Thailand follow.[328]
Post-war modern Korean art started to flourish in the 1960s and 1970s, when South Korean artists took interest in geometrical shapes and intangible subjects. Establishing a harmony betweenman and nature was also a favorite of this time. Because of social instability, social issues appeared as main subjects in the 1980s. Art was influenced by various international events and exhibits in Korea, which brought more diversity.[331] TheOlympic Sculpture Garden in 1988, the transposition of the 1993 edition of theWhitney Biennial to Seoul,[332] the creation of theGwangju Biennale[333] and the Korean Pavilion at theVenice Biennale in 1995[334] were notable events.
Because of South Korea's tumultuous history, construction and destruction has been repeated endlessly, resulting in an interesting melange of architectural styles and designs.[335]
Traditional Korean architecture is characterized by its harmony with nature. Ancient architects adopted thebracket system characterized bythatched roofs and heated floors calledondol.[336] People of the upper classes built bigger houses with elegantly curved tiled roofs and lifting eaves. Traditional architecture can be seen in the palaces and temples, preserved old houses calledhanok,[337] and special sites likeHahoe Folk Village,Yangdong Folk Village andKorean Folk Village. Traditional architecture may also be seen at several of theUNESCO World Heritage Sites.[338]
Western architecture was first introduced at the end of the 19th century. Churches, offices for foreign legislation, schools and university buildings were built in new styles. With the annexation by Japan in 1910 the colonial regime intervened in Korea's architectural heritage, andJapanese-style modern architecture was imposed. Anti-Japanese sentiment and the Korean War led to the destruction of most buildings constructed during that time.[339]
Modern Korean architecture entered a new phase of development during the post-Korean War reconstruction, incorporating modern architectural trends and styles. Stimulated by the economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s, active redevelopment saw new horizons in architectural design. In the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a wide variation of styles in its architectural landscape with the opening up of the market to foreign architects.[340] Contemporary architectural efforts have attempted to balance the traditional philosophy of "harmony with nature" and the fast-paced urbanization that the country has been going through in recent years.[341]
K-pop groupBTS has emerged as one of the country's most successful Korean boy bands since their rise to international prominence during the latter half of the 2010s.
In addition to domestic consumption, South Korea has a thriving entertainment industry where various facets of South Korean entertainment, including television dramas, films, and popular music, have garnered international popularity and generated significant export revenues for the nation's economy. The cultural phenomenon known asHallyu or the "Korean Wave", has swept many countries across Continental and East Asia making South Korea a major soft power as an exporter of popular culture and entertainment, rivaling Western nations such as the United States and the United Kingdom.[342][343][344][345][346]
Blackpink has been one of the most popular K-pop girl groups in the world since the late 2010s.
Until the 1990s,trot and traditionalfolk-based ballads dominated the South Korean popular music scene. The emergence of the pop groupSeo Taiji and Boys in 1992 marked a turning point for South Korean popular music, also known asK-pop. Since the 1990s, the genre of K-pop has continuously engaged in a process of ongoing reinvention and modernization by assimilating various elements of popular musical genres and trends from across the world such asWestern popular music,experimental,jazz,gospel,Latin,hip hop,rhythm and blues,electronic dance,reggae,country,folk, androck on top of its uniquelytraditional Korean music roots.[347] Though Western-style pop, hip hop, rhythm and blues, rock, folk, electronic dance oriented acts have become dominant in the contemporary South Korean popular music scene, trot still continues to be appreciated and enjoyed by older South Koreans.K-pop idols are well known across Continental Asia, have found fame in the Western World, and have generated millions of dollars in export revenue beyond the confines of the traditionalEast Asian music market. Many K-pop acts have also established themselves by securing a strong global following using online social media platforms such asYouTube. K-pop first began to make its mark outside of Continental and East Asia following the unexpected success of singerPsy's international music sensation, "Gangnam Style", which topped global music charts in 2012.
Since the success of the filmShiri in 1999, theKorean film industry has grown substantially, garnering recognition both nation-wide and across the globe. Domestic films have a dominant share of the South Korean film market, partly because of the existence of governmentscreen quotas requiring cinemas to show Korean films for at least 73 days of the year.[348] 2019'sParasite, directed byBong Joon-ho, became thehighest-grossing film in South Korea as well as the first non-English language film to win Best Picture at the United States-basedAcademy Awardsthat year amongstnumerous other accolades.
South Korean television shows have become popular outside of Korea. Television dramas, known asK-dramas, have begun to find fame internationally. Many dramas tend to have a romantic focus. Historical dramas are also famous.[349][350] The 2021 survival dramaSquid Game, created byHwang Dong-hyuk, received critical acclaim and widespread international attention upon its release, becomingNetflix's most-watched series at launch and garnering a viewership of more than 142 million households during its first four weeks from launch.[351][352][353][354]
Every 15th day of the 8th lunar month, Koreans celebrate theMidautumn Festival, in which Koreans visit their ancestral hometowns and eat a variety of traditional Korean foods. On October 1, Armed Forces Day is celebrated, honoring the military forces of South Korea. October 3 isNational Foundation Day.Hangul Day on October 9 commemorates the invention ofhangul, the native alphabet of theKorean language.
Korean cuisine,hanguk yori, orhansik, has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant regional dishes that have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. TheKorean royal court cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals consumed both by the royal family and ordinary citizens have been regulated by a unique culture of etiquette.
Korean cuisine is largely based onrice,noodles,tofu, vegetables, fish and meats. Traditional meals are noted for the number of side dishes,banchan, which accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Every meal is accompanied by numerous banchan.Kimchi, a fermented, usually spicy vegetable dish is commonly served at every meal and is one of the best known dishes. Korean cuisine usually involves heavy seasoning withsesame oil,doenjang (a type offermented soybean paste),soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, andgochujang (a hot pepper paste). Other well-known dishes arebulgogi, grilled marinated beef;gimbap; andtteokbokki, a spicy snack consisting of rice cake seasoned with gochujang or a spicy chili paste.
Soups are also a common part of a meal and are served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal. Soups known asguk are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Similar to guk,tang has less water and is more often served in restaurants. Another type isjjigae, astew that is typically heavily seasoned with chili pepper and served boiling hot.
Football has traditionally been regarded as the most popular sport in Korea, withbaseball as the second.[358] Recent polling indicates that a majority, 41% of South Korean sports fans continue to self-identify as football fans, with baseball ranked 2nd at 25% of respondents. However, the polling did not indicate the extent to which respondents follow both sports.[359]
Baseball was first introduced to Korea in 1905.[360][361][362] Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games.[363][364] TheKorea Professional Baseball league, a 10-team circuit, was established in 1982. TheSouth Korea national team finished third in the2006 World Baseball Classic and second in the2009 tournament. The team's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen atGwanghwamun crossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live.[365] In the2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball.[366] Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup, Korea won the gold medal. At the2010 Asian Games, the Korean National Baseball team won the gold medal. Several Korean players have gone on to play inMajor League Baseball.
Basketball is a popular sport in the country as well. South Korea has traditionally had one of the top basketball teams in Asia and one of the continent's strongest basketball divisions. Seoul hosted the1967 and1995 Asian Basketball Championship. TheKorea national basketball team has won a record number of 23 medals at the event to date.[367]
^South Koreans use the nameHanguk (한국,韓國) when referring to South Korea or Korea as a whole. The literal translation of South Korea,Namhan (남한,南韓), is rarely used. North Koreans useNamjosŏn (남조선,南朝鮮) when referring to South Korea, derived from the North Korean name for Korea,Chosŏn (조선,朝鮮).
^abcdefgh"[2024 종교인식조사] 종교인구 현황과 종교 활동" [[2024 Religious Awareness Survey] Status of religious population and religious activities] (in Korean). RetrievedNovember 9, 2024.
^"South Korea". Central Intelligence Agency. February 27, 2023.Archived from the original on January 10, 2021. RetrievedFebruary 24, 2023 – via CIA.gov.
^Yunn, Seung-Yong (1996), "Muslims earlier contact with Korea",Religious culture of Korea, Hollym International, p. 99
^Dourado, Fernão."Atlas de Fernão Vaz Dourado".Arquivo nacional da Torre do Tombo.Archived from the original on June 21, 2020. RetrievedAugust 13, 2020.
^abMyers, Brian Reynolds (December 28, 2016)."Still the Unloved Republic".Sthele Press. Archived fromthe original on March 13, 2018. RetrievedJune 10, 2019.Taehan minguk. In English it is translated as Republic of Korea or South Korea, names which to us foreigners denote the state as a political entity distinct from its northern neighbor. To most people here, however,Taehan minguk conveys that sense only when used in contrastive proximity with the wordPukhan (North Korea). Ask South Koreans when theTaehan minguk was established; more will answer '5000 years ago' than 'in 1948,' because to them it is simply the full name forHanguk, Korea, the homeland. That's all it meant to most people who shouted those four syllables so proudly during the World Cup in 2002.
^"Ancient civilizations" (Press release). Canada: Royal Ontario Museum. December 12, 2005.Archived from the original on January 8, 2010. RetrievedApril 25, 2010.
^"Prehistoric Korea".About Korea. Archived fromthe original on March 2, 2008. RetrievedJuly 12, 2008., Office of the Prime Minister.
"An extreme manifestation of nationalism and the family cult was the revival of interest in Tangun, the mythical founder of the first Korean state... Most textbooks and professional historians, however, treat him as a myth."
"The Tangun myth became more popular with groups that wanted Korea to be independent; the Kija myth was more useful to those who wanted to show that Korea had a strong affinity to China."
"If a choice is to be made between them, one is faced with the fact that the Tangun, with his supernatural origin, is more clearly a mythological figure than Kija."
^Peterson, Mark; Margulies, Phillip (2009).A Brief History of Korea. Infobase Publishing. p. 6.ISBN978-1-4381-2738-5.
^Janhunen, Juha (2010). "RReconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia".Studia Orientalia (108).... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
^Yi, Hyŏn-hŭi; Pak, Sŏng-su; Yun, Nae-hyŏn (2005).New history of Korea. Jimoondang. p. 201.ISBN978-89-88095-85-0.Archived from the original on January 14, 2023. RetrievedAugust 26, 2016.He launched a military expedition to expand his territory, opening the golden age of Goguryeo.
Yi, Ki-baek (1984).A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47.ISBN978-0-674-61576-2.Archived from the original on January 14, 2023. RetrievedJuly 29, 2016.Koguryŏ was the first to open hostilities, with a bold assault across the Liao River against Liao-hsi, in 598. The Sui emperor, Wen Ti, launched a retaliatory attack on Koguryŏ but met with reverses and turned back in mid-course. Yang Ti, the next Sui emperor, proceeded in 612 to mount an invasion of unprecedented magnitude, marshalling a huge force said to number over a million men. And when his armies failed to take Liao-tung Fortress (modern Liao-yang), the anchor of Koguryŏ's first line of defense, he had a nearly a third of his forces, some 300,000 strong, break off the battle there and strike directly at the Koguryŏ capital of P'yŏngyang. But the Sui army was lured into a trap by the famed Koguryŏ commander Ŭlchi Mundŏk, and suffered a calamitous defeat at the Salsu (Ch'ŏngch'ŏn) River. It is said that only 2,700 of the 300,000 Sui soldiers who had crossed the Yalu survived to find their way back, and the Sui emperor now lifted the siege of Liao-tung Fortress and withdrew his forces to China proper. Yang Ti continued to send his armies against Koguryŏ but again without success, and before long his war-weakened empire crumbled.
Nahm, Andrew C. (2005).A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History (Second revised ed.). Seoul: Hollym International Corporation. p. 18.ISBN978-0-930878-68-9.China, which had been split into many states since the early 3rd century, was reunified by the Sui dynasty at the end of the 6th century. Soon after that, Sui China mobilized a large number of troops and launched war against Koguryŏ. However, the people of Koguryŏ were united and they were able to repel the Chinese aggressors. In 612, Sui troops invaded Korea again, but Koguryŏ forces fought bravely and destroyed Sui troops everywhere. General Ŭlchi Mundŏk of Koguryŏ completely wiped out some 300,000 Sui troops which came across the Yalu River in the battles near the Salsu River (now Ch'ŏngch'ŏn River) with his ingenious military tactics. Only 2,700 Sui troops were able to flee from Korea. The Sui dynasty, which wasted so much energy and manpower in aggressive wars against Koguryŏ, fell in 618.
^Lee, Injae; Miller, Owen; Park, Jinhoon; Yi, Hyun-Hae (December 15, 2014).Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–65.ISBN978-1-107-09846-6.Archived from the original on January 24, 2023. RetrievedFebruary 24, 2017.
^Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather (May 1, 1955).Ennins Travels in Tang China. John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited. pp. 276–283.ISBN978-0-471-07053-5.Archived from the original on March 28, 2024. RetrievedJuly 21, 2016.From what Ennin tells us, it seems that commerce between East China, Korea and Japan was, for the most part, in the hands of men from Silla. Here in the relatively dangerous waters on the eastern fringes of the world, they performed the same functions as did the traders of the placid Mediterranean on the western fringes. This is a historical fact of considerable significance but one which has received virtually no attention in the standard historical compilations of that period or in the modern books based on these sources. ... While there were limits to the influence of the Koreans along the eastern coast of China, there can be no doubt of their dominance over the waters off these shores. ... The days of Korean maritime dominance in the Far East actually were numbered, but in Ennin's time the men of Silla were still the masters of the seas in their part of the world.
^Lee, Ki-Baik (1984).A New History of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 103.ISBN978-0-674-61576-2.When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom.
^Bowman, John (September 5, 2000).Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 202.ISBN978-0-231-50004-3. RetrievedAugust 1, 2016.The Mongolian-Khitan invasions of the late tenth century challenge the stability of the Koryo government, but a period of prosperity follows the defeat of the Khitan in 1018..
^Haralambous, Yannis; Horne, P. Scott (November 28, 2007).Fonts & Encodings. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 155.ISBN978-0-596-10242-5.Archived from the original on January 24, 2023. RetrievedNovember 8, 2016.
^Perez, Louis (2013).Japan At War: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 140–141.ISBN978-1-59884-741-3.Archived from the original on March 28, 2024. RetrievedJune 19, 2015."Yi's successes gave Korea complete control of the sea lanes around the peninsula, and the Korean navy was able to intercept most of the supplies and communications between Japan and Korea"
^Millett, Allan R. (2007).The Korean War: The Essential Bibliography. The Essential Bibliography Series. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books Inc. p. 14.ISBN978-1574889765.
^Stuecker, William (2004).Korean War: World History. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 102–103.
^Su-kyoung Hwang,Korea's Grievous War. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016; pg. 90–95.
^Kim, Samuel S. (2014). "The Evolving Asian System".International Relations of Asia.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 45.ISBN978-1-4422-2641-8.With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including theChinese Civil War (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), theVietnam War (2 million), and thePol Potgenocide in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).
^Cumings, Bruce (2011).The Korean War: A History.Modern Library. p. 35.ISBN978-0-8129-7896-4.Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2 million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of nonhostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2 million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat.
^Lewy, Guenter (1980).America in Vietnam.Oxford University Press. pp. 450–453.ISBN978-0-19-987423-1.The total number of Korean civilians who died in the fighting, which left almost every major city in North and South Korea in ruins, has been estimated at between 2 and 3 million. This adds up to almost 1 million military deaths and a possible 2.5 million civilians who were killed or died as a result of this extremely destructive conflict.
^Renewable Energy Policy Mechanisms by Paul GipeArchived May 10, 2012, at theWayback Machine (1.3MB) Lauber, V. (2004). "REFIT and RPS: Options for a harmonized Community framework",Energy Policy, Vol. 32, Issue 12, pp. 1405–1414. Lauber, V. (2008). "Certificate Trading – Part of the Solution or Part of the Problem?"Ljubljana Conference on the Future of GHG Emissions Trading in the EU, March 2008. Salzburg, Austria: University of Salzburg. Retrieved March 16, 2009, at www.uni-salzburg.at/politikwissenschaft/lauber
^"Party Groupings". United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. November 28, 2007. Archived fromthe original on June 5, 2013. RetrievedFebruary 18, 2010.
^Heo, Man-ho (March 25, 2009). "North Korea's Continued Detention of South Korean POWs since the Korean and Vietnam Wars North Korea's Continued Detention of South Korean POWs since the Korean and Vietnam Wars".Man-ho Heo.14 (2):141–165.doi:10.1080/10163270209464030.
^Quinn, Joseph Peter (2019)."South Korea". In Demy, Timothy J.; Shaw, Jeffrey M. (eds.).Religion and Contemporary Politics: A Global Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 365.ISBN978-1-4408-3933-7.Archived from the original on April 12, 2024. RetrievedJune 3, 2020.
^Ogata, Mamoru Billy (1984).A Comparative Study of Church Growth in Korea and Japan: With Special Application to Japan. Fuller Theological Seminary. pp. 32 ff.
^abKorean Social Sciences Journal,24 (1997). Korean Social Science Research Council. pp. 33–53
^Moll, Rob (March 1, 2006)."Missions Incredible".Christianity Today. Carol Stream, IL.Archived from the original on January 25, 2012. RetrievedFebruary 17, 2009.
^"Buddhism in Korea".Korean Buddhism Magazine. Seoul. 1997. Archived fromthe original on April 26, 2009. RetrievedFebruary 17, 2009.
^"FIBA Asia Competition Archives".Competition Archives. International Basketball Federation FIBA. September 26, 2011. Archived fromthe original on August 7, 2014. RetrievedApril 15, 2012.
Lew, Yong Ick.The Making of the First Korean President: Syngman Rhee's Quest for Independence (University of Hawai'i Press; 2013); scholarly biography; 576 pages;
Nahm, Andrew C. (1996).Korea: A history of the Korean people (2nd ed.). Seoul: Hollym.ISBN978-1-56591-070-6.
Schneidewind, Dieter K. (2016).Economic Miracle Market South Korea: A Blueprint for Economic Growth in Developing Nations. Springer.ISBN978-981-10-0613-5.
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