"Souq" redirects here. For the city in Iran of a similar name, seeSuq, Iran. For the village in Iran of a similar name, seeShuk, Iran. For the online retailer, seeSouq.com.
The termbazaar originates fromPersian, where it referred to a town's public market district.[4] The term bazaar is sometimes also used to refer collectively to themerchants,bankers andcraftsmen who work in that area. The termsouk comes fromArabic and refers to marketplaces in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]
Although the lack of archaeological evidence has limited detailed studies of the evolution of bazaars, the earliest evidence for the existence of bazaars or souks dates to around 3000BCE. Cities in the ancient Middle East appear to have contained commercial districts. Later, in the historicIslamic world, bazaars typically shared in common certain institutions, such as the position of themuḥtasib, and certain architectural forms, such as roofed streets and courtyard buildings known in English ascaravanserais. The exact details of their evolution and organization varied from region to region.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Western interest inoriental culture led to the publication of many books about daily life in Middle Eastern countries. Souks, bazaars and the trappings of trade feature prominently in paintings and engravings, works of fiction and travel writing.
Shopping at a bazaar or market-place remains a central feature of daily life in many Middle-Eastern and South Asian cities and towns and the bazaar remains the beating heart ofWest Asian andSouth Asian life; in the Middle East, souks tend to be found in a city's old quarter. Bazaars and souks are often important tourist attractions. A number of bazaar districts have been listed asUNESCO World Heritage Sites due to their historical and/or architectural significance.
In North American and Europe, the English word "bazaar" can denote more generically a shop or market selling miscellaneous items. It can also refer in particular to a sale orfair to raise money forcharitable purposes (e.g.charity bazaar).[12][13][11]
InTurkish, the word was borrowed aspazar, but it refers to an outdoor market held at regular intervals, not a permanent structure containing shops. English place names usually translate "çarşı" (shopping district in a downtown or downtown itself) as "bazaar" when they refer to an area with covered streets or passages.[citation needed]
The word "souk" in the Arabic-speaking world is roughly equivalent to "bazaar".[14] The Arabic word is a loan fromAramaic "šūqā" ("street, market"), itself a loanword from theAkkadian "sūqu" ("street").[15][16] The Arabic wordsūq was then borrowed into English via French (souk) by the 19th century.[17][18] The English word can also be spelled "suq" or "souq".[19][20]
InModern Standard Arabic the termal-sūq refers to markets in both the physical sense and the abstracteconomic sense (e.g., an Arabic-speaker would speak of thesūq in the old city as well as thesūq for oil, and would call the concept of thefree marketالسوق الحرّ,as-sūq al-ḥurr).
InIsrael, the termshuk orshuq (Hebrew:שׁוּק,romanized: šūq) shares a commonAramaic origin with theArabicsouk, and holds a prominent role in everyday life.[citation needed] Markets such asMahane Yehuda inJerusalem are often covered rows of stalls much like those seen elsewhere in the region, selling produce, spices,halvah, and even clothing.
Scholar Mohammad Gharipour has pointed out that in spite of the centrality of bazaars in Persian history, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence.[24] Historical records document the concept of a bazaar existing in Iran as early as 3000 BCE, where some large cities contained districts dedicated to trade and commerce.[25][26] Archeological data also suggests the existence of market districts in ancientMesopotamia.[26] Markets centers must have existed inEgypt to conduct international trade, but no archeological evidence for them has been found.[26] InAchaemenid Persia (550–330 BCE), documents indicate that crafts were sold in markets close to Persepolis.[26] A network of bazaars had sprung up alongside ancient caravan trade routes. Bazaars located along these trade routes, formed networks, linking major cities with each other and in which goods, culture, people and information could be exchanged.[27] Sources from around the same era also indicate that ancient Greeks regulated trade in areas at the center of their cities aroundstoa buildings. The ideas of Greek city planning were spread to the Middle East during theSeleucid period, following theconquests ofAlexander the Great.[26]
The Greek historian,Herodotus, noted that in Egypt, roles were reversed compared with other cultures and Egyptian women frequented the market and carried on trade, while the men remain at home weaving cloth.[28] He also describedThe Babylonian Marriage Market.[29][relevant?]
Sassanid rule in Iran was an important period for the development of urbanization and commerce.[25] In Sassanid Iran, the bazaar was usually the heart of a town or city, where it spread outwards and affected the development of other neighbourhoods. The bazaar usually contained, or was adjoined by, an open-air plaza that served as a forum of socio-economic activity.[25]
Historically, bazaars were also held outside cities at locations where incoming caravans stopped and merchants displayed their goods for sale.[citation needed] Bazaars were established atcaravanserai, places where a caravan or caravans arrived and remained for rest and refreshments. Since this might be infrequent, souks often extended beyond buying and selling goods to include major festivals involving various cultural and social activities. Any bazaar may serve a social function as being a place for people to meet in, in addition to its commercial function.[30]
In pre-Islamic Arabia, two types of souks existed: permanent urban markets and temporary seasonal markets. The temporary seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce. Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle East in the history of souks, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. However, documentary sources point to permanent marketplaces in cities from as early as 550 BCE.[24]
Khan al-Mirjan inBaghdad (14th century), one of the oldest preserved urban commercial structures in the Islamic world
According to traditional Muslim narratives,Muhammad established a market place (sūq) inMedina shortly after arriving there during theHijrah in 622 CE. He designated an open, unbuilt space as the market area and forbade both the construction of permanent structures and the levying of taxes in this area.[14] Eight years later, he is said to have appointed a market inspector ('āmil 'alā l-sūq), a position that likely evolved into the latermuḥtasib in Islamic cities, an official in charge of overseeing public morality and regulating weights and measures.[14]
Despite the importance of the bazaar to economic life and the prominence of marketplace terminology in theQuran, not much is known about the early history of bazaars and it remains a topic of ongoing research.[14] Most of the surviving urban commercial structures in the Islamic world date from the 16th century or later, though some preserved urbancaravanserais (commonly known as afunduq,khān, orwakāla) date from earlier periods.[31] The oldest of these is theKhan al-Mirjan in Baghdad, built in 1359 as part of a larger architectural complex.[32]
Muhammad's prohibition against constructing permanent buildings and levying taxes in the market began to be disregarded as early as theUmayyad period (7th to 8th centuries). The Umayyad caliphsMu'awiya I andHisham ibn Abd al-Malik both built structures in the market of Medina and levied taxes there, while purpose-built markets were built in early Islamic cities further abroad such asBasra inIraq,Fustat in Egypt, andKairouan in Tunisia. This process seems to have accelerated during the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743) in particular.[14] Markets that sold the most important or expensive goods were usually located near the city's centralFriday mosque.[14] In some cities, such as Cairo and Aleppo, the main bazaar was initially focused along one important street and then progressively grew and branched off into the surrounding streets.[31]
During the Islamic period in Iran, bazaars developed along the same lines as those of the Sassanid period.[25] Up to the 11th century, the bazaar developed more commonly in the suburbs outside the city walls that enclosed theshahristān, the formal city. This was especially true in Central Asia, though there were exceptions in some regions where the bazaar was grouped with the citadel and the city's Friday mosque inside the city walls.[33] After the 11th century, the growing importance of the suburbs and the commercial districts resulted in most of them being enclosed within newly expanded city walls. From the 10th century onward, the bazaar became the financial center of a city and was heavily patronized and developed by ruling elites. The grouping of a bazaar, citadel, and Friday mosque also became more common.[33]
In theMamluk Sultanate (13th to 16th centuries) and in theOttoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries), the construction of commercial buildings in and around the bazaar was often sponsored by sultans, ruling elites, or by members of theOttoman royal family. The revenues generated by these buildings were typically earmarked to support the upkeep of religious complexes sponsored by these same patrons, through the legal framework of awaqf (legal endowment).[34][35][36]
Mule moving goods around in the car-free Medina quarter,Fes, Morocco
In the Middle East, the bazaar is considered to be "the beating heart of the city and a symbol of Islamic architecture and culture of high significance."[37] Today, bazaars are popular sites for tourists and some of these ancient bazaars have been listed as world heritage sites or national monuments on the basis of their historical, cultural or architectural value.
Shopping at a souk or market place is part of daily life throughout much of the Middle East.[44] Prices are commonly set bybargaining, also known as haggling, between buyers and sellers.[45]
Bazaars or souks are traditionally divided into specialized sections dealing in specific types of product, each usually housed in a few narrow streets and named after the product it specializes in such as thegold souk, the textile souk, the spice souk, the leather souk, the booksellers' souk, etc. This promotes competition among sellers and helps buyers easily compare prices.[46] Merchants specialized in each trade were also organized intoguilds, which provided support to merchants but also to clients. The exact details of the organizations varied from region to region. Each guild had rules that members were expected to follow, but they were loose enough to allow for competition. Guilds also fulfilled some functions similar totrade unions and were able to negotiate with the government on behalf of merchants or represent their interests when needed.[46]
Though each neighbourhood within the city would have a local souk selling food and other essentials, the main bazaar was one of the central structures of a large city, selling durable goods, luxuries and providing services such as money exchange. Workshops where goods for sale are produced (in the case of a merchant selling locally-made products) are typically located away from the souk itself.
Historically, in Islamic cities, themuḥtasib was the official in charge of regulating and policing the bazaar and other aspects of urban life. They monitored things such as weights and measures, pricing, cleanliness, noise, and traffic circulation, as well as being responsible for other issues of public morality.[14][46] They also investigated complaints about cheating or the quality of goods.[46] The equivalent official could be known by other titles in different regions, such as thekedkhoda in Istanbul or theamir-i bazariyan inDelhi. In theMaghreb (northwestern Africa), themuḥtasib also shared responsibilities with other officials such as theqadi or thehakim.[46]
Permanent bazaars were established in urban zones, usually within thecity walls and close to the heart of the city. In much of the Middle East and North Africa, the bazaar is a network of interconnected spaces, including streets and buildings, with diverse architectural forms. Its boundaries are not sharply defined and can vary according to circumstance, as the bazaar is closely integrated with its urban surroundings and with other important institutions of the city.[14]
Although there is great variety among the bazaars of this region, there are three recurring elements, in addition to the general network of market streets. One element is the individual shops or booths that line each side of a market street. The shops are usually small spaces open to the street and occupied by merchants. They are typically equipped with large shutters which can be closed and locked when the shopkeeper is away.[14] Another element is a more secure market area, usually centrally located and consisting of streets that were covered or roofed. This complex is variably known as aqayṣariyya,bedesten, orkhān, depending on the city or historical period. It usually hosted the most prestigious and profitable trades such as jewelry, perfumes, and textiles. In order to protect these goods, the entrances to this area could be closed and locked at night or in times of danger.[14] The other recurring element is the presence of courtyard buildings entered via a single large doorway. Often translated into English as acaravanserai, this type of building is known in different regions as afunduq,khān,samsara, orwakāla. They could serve a variety of functions including an inn for travelers and merchants, a manufacturing center, a trade venue, or a warehouse.[14]
In Iran and Central Asia, the permanent bazaar is likewise in the centre of a city and had common architectural elements. These bazaars acted as financial centers of the city and were traditionally overseen by the state.[33] Some Iranian bazaars are organized around one long market street from which other market streets branch off (e.g. in Isfahan or Tehran), while others are large rectangular zones with a grid-like network of parallel and intersecting streets (e.g. as in Tabriz).[33] The streets are lined with structures of one or two storeys that contain spaces for shops. The streets are typically roofed with brick vaults, pierced by skylights to allow for light and air circulation. The shops are often adjacent or connected to the workshops where the goods are also produced, so that manufacturing and retail are often concentrated in the same areas, though some production (especially of textiles) was also distributed in other parts of the city.[33] Like the bazaars further west, there were also manykhāns (caravanserais) built in the area. They acted as warehouses, production centers, wholesale centers, hostels for merchants, and offices for conducting business.[33]
In the cities that developed under the Ottoman Empire, there was generally one central bazaar area, known in Turkish as theçarşı. TheGrand Bazaar inIstanbul, known locally as theKapalıçarşı ('covered market'), is a famous example. Additionally, several types of market structures were common: thebedesten, thearasta, and thehan (Turkishcognate ofkhān).[34] TheOttomanbedesten was a solid stone building, typically rectangular and roofed by domes, with shops inside. Like theqayṣariyya orbedesten in other regions, it hosted the most important and luxurious trades.[34] Thearasta is usually an elongated market structure or market street with shops lining its façades.Arastas could be independent markets built outside the main bazaar area, such as those built as part of large religious complexes like theSelimiye Mosque complex inEdirne or theSultanahmet Mosque complex in Istanbul. TheSpice Bazaar orMısır Çarşısı ('Egyptian Market') in Istanbul is also one of the largest and best-known examples.[34] Thehan is similar in function to otherkhān or caravanserai buildings elsewhere, with a courtyard enclosed by two storeys. The ground floor was usually used for storage and for stabling horses, while the upper floor housed merchants.[34]
Cayenne peppers at the Souk Al Milh inSanaa, Yemen
A temporary, seasonal souk is held at a set time that might be yearly, monthly or weekly. The oldest souks were set up annually, and were typically general festivals held outside cities. For example, Souk Ukadh was held yearly in pre-Islamic times in an area betweenMecca andTa’if during the sacred month ofDhu al-Qi'dah. While a busy market, it was more famous for its poetry competitions, judged by prominent poets such asAl-Khansa andAl-Nabigha. An example of an Islamic annual souk isAl Mirbid just outsideBasra, also famed for its poetry competitions in addition to its storytelling activities.[47] Temporary souks tended to become known for specific types of produce. For example, Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes.[48] Political, economic and social changes have left only the small seasonal souks outside villages and small towns, primarily selling livestock and agricultural products.
Weekly markets have continued to function throughout the Arab world. Most of them are named from the day of the week on which they are held. They usually have open spaces specifically designated for their use inside cities. Examples of surviving markets are the Wednesday Market inAmman that specializes in the sale of used products, theGhazl market held every Friday inBaghdad specializing in pets; the Fina’ Market inMarrakech offers performance acts such as singing, music, acrobats and circus activities.
In tribal areas, where seasonal souks operated, neutrality from tribal conflicts was usually declared for the period of operation of a souk to permit the unhampered exchange of surplus goods. Some of the seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce such as Suq Hijr in Bahrain, noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle Eastern market place, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence.[24]
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Europeans conquered and excavated parts of North Africa and the Levant. These regions now make up what is called the Middle East, but in the past were known as theOrient. Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups – theEuropean West and theEast or Orient;us and theother. Europeans often saw Orientals as the opposite of Western civilization; the peoples could be threatening- they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational."[49] At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with the other gave rise to a genre of painting known asOrientalism. A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during the early modern period.
Many of these works were lavishly illustrated with engravings of every day scenes of Oriental lifestyles, including scenes of market places and market trade.[50] Artists focused on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favorite subject matter. Some of these works were propaganda designed to justify European imperialism in the East, however many artists relied heavily on their everyday experiences for inspiration in their artworks.[51] For example,Charles D'Oyly, who was born in India, published theAntiquities of Dacca featuring a series of 15 engraved plates of Dacca [now Dhaka, Bangladesh] featuring scenes of markets, commerce, buildings and streetscapes.[52] European society generally frowned on nude painting – but harems, concubines and slave markets, presented as quasi-documentary works, satisfied European desires for pornographic art. The Oriental female wearing a veil was a particularly tempting subject because she was hidden from view, adding to her mysterious allure.[53]
Notable artists in the Orientalist genre include: Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904),Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860),Frederic Leighton (1830–1896),Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853-1907 andWilliam Holman Hunt (1827–1910) who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce. French painterJean-Étienne Liotard visited Istanbul in the 17th century and painted pastels of Turkish domestic scenes. British painterJohn Frederick Lewis who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life.Edwin Lord Weeks was a notable American example of a 19th-century artist and author in the Orientalism genre. His parents were wealthy tea and spice merchants who were able to fund his travels and interest in painting. In 1895 Weeks wrote and illustrated a book of travels titledFrom the Black Sea through Persia and India. Other notable painters in the Orientalist genre who included scenes of street life and market-based trade in their work are Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904),Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860),Frederic Leighton (1830–1896),Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853–1907 andWilliam Holman Hunt (1827–1910), who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce.[54]
A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during the early modern period.[55]
Many English visitors to the Orient wrote narratives around their travels. British Romantic literature in the Orientalism tradition has its origins in the early eighteenth century, with the first translations ofThe Arabian Nights (translated into English from the French in 1705–08). The popularity of this work inspired authors to develop a new genre, the Oriental tale. Samuel Johnson'sHistory of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia, (1759) is mid-century example of the genre.[56] Byron'sOriental Tales, is another example of the Romantic Orientalism genre.[57]
Although these works were purportedly non-fiction, they were notoriously unreliable. Many of these accounts provided detailed descriptions of market places, trading and commerce.[58] Examples of travel writing include:Les Mysteres de L'Egypte Devoiles byOlympe Audouard published in 1865[59] andJacques Majorelle'sRoad Trip Diary of a Painter in the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas published in 1922[60]
Haat bazaar – (also known as ahat) an open air bazaar or market in South Asia.
Indoor swap meet - a regional American term for a bazaar-like market.
Landa bazaar – a terminal market or market for second hand goods (South Asia)
Meena Bazaar – a bazaar that raises money for non-profit organisations.
Pasar malam – a night market in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore that opens in the evening, typically held in the street in residential neighbourhoods.
Pasar pagi – a morning market, typically a wet market that trades from dawn until midday, found in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.
Shōtengai - a style of Japanese commercial district, typically in the form of a local market street that is closed to vehicular traffic.
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^abcdeKuban, Doğan (2011). "Bazaar, Anatolia and the Balkans". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill.ISBN9789004161658.
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^Karimi, M., Moradi, E. and Mehr, R., "Bazaar, As a Symbol of Culture and the Architecture of Commercial Spaces in Iranian-Islamic Civilization,"
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^Davies, K.,Orientalists: Western Artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia, New York, Laynfaroh, 2005; Meagher, J., "Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art," [The Metropolitan Museum of Art Essay], Online:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/euor/hd_euor.htm
^Houston, C.,New Worlds Reflected: Travel and Utopia in the Early Modern Period, Routledge, 2016
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