Somaliland, officially theRepublic of Somaliland,[b] is anunrecognised country in theHorn of Africa. It is located in the southern coast of theGulf of Aden and bordered byDjibouti to the northwest,Ethiopia to the south and west, andSomalia to the east.[6] Its claimed territory has an area of 176,120 square kilometres (68,000 sq mi),[7] with approximately 6.2 million people as of 2024.[8][9] The capital and largest city isHargeisa.
Various Somali Muslim kingdoms were established in the area during the early Islamic period, including in the 14th to 15th centuries the Zeila-basedAdal Sultanate.[10][11] In the early modern period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate emerged, including theIsaaq Sultanate which was established in the middle of the 18th century.[12][13][14][15] In the late 19th century, theUnited Kingdom signed agreements with various clans in the area, establishing theSomaliland Protectorate,[16][17][18] which was formally granted independence by the United Kingdom as theState of Somaliland on 26 June 1960. Five days later, the State of Somaliland voluntarily united with theTrust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somalia) to form theSomali Republic.[19][16] The union of the two states proved problematic early on,[20] and in response to the harsh policies enacted by Somalia's Barre regime against the main clan family in Somaliland, theIsaaq, shortly after the conclusion of the disastrousOgaden War,[21] a 10-yearwar of independence concluded with thedeclaration of Somaliland's independence in 1991.[22] TheGovernment of Somaliland regards itself as thesuccessor state to British Somaliland.[23]
Since 1991, the territory has been governed by democratically elected governments that seek international recognition as the government of the Republic of Somaliland.[24][25][26][27] The central government maintainsinformal ties with some foreign governments, who have sent delegations to Hargeisa;[28][29][30] Somaliland hostsrepresentative offices from several countries, includingEthiopia andTaiwan.[31][32] However, Somaliland's self-proclaimed independence has not been officially recognised by any UN member state or international organisation.[28][33][34] It is the largest unrecognised state in the world byde facto controlled land area. It is a member of theUnrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, an advocacy group whose members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities and unrecognised or occupied territories.[35] Following theLas Anod conflict that emerged in 2022, Somaliland lost control of a significant portion of its eastern territory to pro-unionist forces who established theSSC-Khatumo administration.[36]
At the Grand conference inBurao held in 1991, many names for the country were suggested, includingPuntland, in reference to Somaliland's location in the ancientLand of Punt and which is now the name of thePuntland state in neighbouring Somalia, andShankaroon, meaning "better than five" inSomali, in reference to the five regions ofGreater Somalia.[38]
Wild animals depicted in the caves ofDhaymoole, many of which have gone extinct in the region
The area of Somaliland was inhabited around 10,000 years ago during theNeolithic age.[39][40] The ancient shepherds raised cows and other livestock and created vibrant rock art paintings. During theStone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here.[41] The oldest evidence of burial customs in theHorn of Africa comes fromcemeteries in Somaliland dating back to the4th millennium BCE.[42] The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterised in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.[43]
TheLaas Geel complex on the outskirts of Hargeisa dates back around 5,000 years, and hasrock art depicting both wild animals and decorated cows.[46] Othercave paintings are found in the northernDhambalin region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE.[47][48] Additionally, between the towns ofLas Khorey andEl Ayo in eastern Somaliland liesKarinhegane, the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.[49][50]
Ancientpyramidical structures,mausoleums, ruined cities and stone walls, such as theWargaade Wall, are evidence of civilisations thriving in the Somali peninsula.[51][52] Ancient Somaliland had a trading relationship withancient Egypt andMycenaean Greece dating back to at least the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancientLand of Punt.[51][53] The Puntites tradedmyrrh, spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory andfrankincense with the Egyptians, Phoenicians,Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the18th dynasty QueenHatshepsut is recorded on the temple reliefs atDeir el-Bahari, during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.[51] In 2015, isotopic analysis of ancient baboon mummies from Punt that had been brought to Egypt as gifts indicated that the specimens likely originated from an area encompassing eastern Somalia and the Eritrea-Ethiopia corridor.[54]
After theRoman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the establishment of a Roman naval presence atAden to curb piracy, Arab and Somali merchants cooperated with the Romans to bar Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian peninsula[57] to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the lucrative commerce between the Red and Mediterranean Seas.[58] However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference.[59]
For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities ofcinnamon to Somalia and Arabia fromCeylon and theSpice Islands. The source of the spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula.[60] The collaboration between Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the spice trade profitable, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across sea and land routes.[58]
In 2007, more rock art sites with Sabaean and Himyarite writings in and around Hargeisa were found, but some were bulldozed by developers.[61]
A 15th-century French artist's rendering of a battle between troops of theSultan of Adal (right) and KingYagbea-Sion and his men (left). FromLe livre des Merveilles.
The Isaaq people traditionally claim to have descended fromSheikh Ishaaq bin Ahmed, anIslamic scholar who purportedly traveled to Somaliland in the 12th or 13th century and married two women; one from the localDir clan and the other from the neighboringHarari people.[62] He is said to have sired eight sons who are the common ancestors of the clans of the Isaaq clan-family. He remained inMaydh until his death.[63]
As theIsaaq clan-family grew in size and numbers during the 12th century, the clan-family migrated and spread from their core area inMait (Maydh) and the widerSanaag region in a southwestward expansion over a wide portion of present-day Somaliland by the 15th and 16th centuries.[64][65][66][67] As the Isaaq expanded the earlier Dir communities of Mait and the wider Sanaag region were driven westwards and to the south towards their present positions.[68] In this general expansion the Isaaq split up into their present component segments, however one fraction of the Habar Yunis clan, the Muse 'Arre, remains behind in Mait as the custodians of the tomb of Sheikh Ishaaq.[68] By the 1300s the Isaaq clans united to defend their inhabited territories and resources during clan conflicts against migrating clans.[69]
After the war, the Isaaq clans (along with other tribes like theDaarood) grew in numbers and territory in the northeast, causing them to began to vie with theirOromo neighbours, who were expanding northwards themselves after theGreat Oromo Migrations, thus creating a general thrust toward the southwest. The Isaaq, along with Darood subclans pushed westwards into the plains ofJigjiga and further, beyond where they played a important role in theAdal Sultanate's campaigns against ChristianAbyssinia.[70] By the 16th to 17th century the movements that followed seem to have established the Isaaqs on coastal Somaliland.[71]
Various Somali Muslim kingdoms were established in the area in the early Islamic period.[10] In the 14th century, theZeila-basedAdal Sultanate battled the forces of the Ethiopian emperorAmda Seyon I.[11] TheOttoman Empire later occupiedBerbera and environs in the 1500s.Muhammad Ali,Pasha ofEgypt, subsequently established a foothold in the area between 1821 and 1841.[72]
The Sanaag region is home to the ruined Islamic city ofMaduna nearEl Afweyn, which is considered the most substantial and accessible ruin of its type in Somaliland.[73][74] The main feature of the ruined city is a large rectangular mosque, its 3-metre high walls still standing, which include a mihrab and possibly several smaller arched niches.[74] Swedish-Somali archaeologistSada Mire dates the ruined city to the 15th–17th centuries.[75]
A banner used by the Adal Sultanate and later the Isaaq on key religious shrines
Isaaq Sultanate
In theearly modern period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate began to flourish in Somaliland. These included theIsaaq Sultanate andHabr Yunis Sultanate.[76] TheIsaaq Sultanate was aSomali kingdom that ruled parts of theHorn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of theIsaaq clan, descendants of theBanu Hashim clan,[77] in modern-day Somaliland andEthiopia. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch established by the first sultan, SultanGuled Abdi, of theEidagale clan. The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Republic of Somaliland.[78][79][80]
According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty theIsaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch descending from Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son ofSheikh Ishaaq'sHarari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun (Somali:Boqor Haaruun) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.[81][82] The last Tolje'lo rulerGarad Dhuh Barar (Somali:Dhuux Baraar) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge among theHabr Awal with whom they still mostly live.[83][84]
The Sultan of Isaaq regularly convenedshirs (meetings) where he would be informed and advised by leading elders or religious figures on what decisions to make. In the case of theDervish movement, SultanDeria Hassan had chosen not to join after receiving counsel fromSheikh Madar. He addressed early tensions between the Saad Musa and Eidagale upon the former's settlement into the growing town of Hargeisa in the late 19th century.[85] The Sultan was also responsible for organising grazing rights and, in the late 19th century, new agricultural spaces.[86] The allocation of resources and sustainable use of them was also a matter that Sultans concerned themselves with and was crucial in this arid region. In the 1870s, at a famous meeting betweenSheikh Madar and Sultan Deria, it was proclaimed that hunting and tree cutting in the vicinity of Hargeisa would be banned,[87] and that the holy relics fromAw Barkhadle would be brought and oaths would be sworn on them by the Isaaqs in the presence of the Sultan whenever internal combat broke out.[88]
Aside from the leading Sultan of Isaaq there were numerous Akils, Garaads and subordinate Sultans alongside religious authorities that constituted the Sultanate; occasionally these would declare their independence or simply break from its authority.
The Isaaq Sultanate had 5 rulers prior to the creation ofBritish Somaliland in 1884. Historically, Sultans would be chosen by a committee of several important members of the various Isaaq subclans. Sultans were usually buried atToon, south of Hargeisa, which was a significant site and the capital of the Sultanate duringFarah Guled's rule.[89]
The first engagement between Somalis of the region and the British was in 1825 and led to hostilities,[90] ending in theBattle of Berbera and a subsequent trade agreement between theHabr Awal and the United Kingdom.[91][92] This was followed by a British treaty with the Governor ofZeila in 1840. An engagement was then started between the British and elders ofHabar Garhajis andHabar Toljaala clans of theIsaaq in 1855, followed a year later by the conclusion of the "Articles of Peace and Friendship" between the Habar Awal andEast India Company. These engagements between the British and Somali clans culminated in the formal treaties the British signed with the henceforth 'British Somaliland' clans, which took place between 1884 and 1886 (treaties were signed with the Habar Awal, Gadabursi, Habar Toljaala, Habar Garhajis, Esa, and the Warsangali clans), and paved the way for the British to establish aprotectorate in the region referred to asBritish Somaliland.[93] The British garrisoned the protectorate fromAden and administered it as part ofBritish India until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by theForeign Office until 1905, and afterwards by theColonial Office.[94]
The Somaliland Campaign, also called the Anglo-Somali War or the Dervish War, was a series of military expeditions that took place between 1900 and 1920 in theHorn of Africa, pitting theDervishes led byMohammed Abdullah Hassan (nicknamed the "Mad Mullah") against theBritish.[95] The British were assisted in their offensives by theEthiopians andItalians. During theFirst World War (1914–1918), Hassan also received aid from theOttomans,Germans and, for a time, from the EmperorIyasu V of Ethiopia. The conflict ended when the Britishaerially bombed the Dervish capital ofTaleh in February 1920.[96]
The Fifth Expedition of theSomaliland campaign in 1920 was the finalBritish expedition against theDervish forces ofMohammed Abdullah Hassan, theSomali religious leader. Although most of the combat took place in January of the year, British troops had begun preparations for the assault as early as November 1919. The British forces included elements of theRoyal Air Force and theSomaliland Camel Corps. After three weeks of battle, Hassan's Dervishes were defeated, bringing an effective end to their 20-year resistance.[97] It was one of the bloodiest and longest militant movements in sub-Saharan Africa during the colonial era, one that overlapped with World War I. The battles between various sides over two decades killed nearly a third of Somaliland's population and ravaged the local economy.[98][99][100]
The Italian conquest of British Somaliland was a military campaign in East Africa, which took place in August 1940 between forces ofItaly and those of several British andCommonwealth countries. The Italian attack was part of theEast African campaign.[101]
The people of Burao clashed with the British in 1922. They revolted in opposition to a new tax that was imposed upon them, rioting and attacking British government officials. This led to a shootout between the British and Burao residents in which Captain Allan Gibb, a Dervish war veteran and district commissioner, was shot and killed. The British requested SirWinston Churchill, thenSecretary of State for the Colonies, to send troops fromAden and Air Force bombers Burao the revolting clans' livestock.[102] The RAF planes arrived at Burao within two days and proceeded to bomb the town with incendiaries, effectively burning the entire settlement to the ground.[103][104][105][106]
I deeply regret to inform that during an affray at Burao yesterday between Rer Sugulleh and Akils of other tribes Captain Gibb was shot dead. Having called out Camel corps company to quell the disturbance, he went forward himself with his interpreter, whereupon fire opened on him by some Rer segulleh riflemen and he was instantly killed..Miscreants then disappeared under the cover of darkness.To meet the situation created by the Murder of Gibb, we require two aeroplanes for about fourteen days. I have arranged with resident, Aden, for these. And made formal application, which please confirm. It is proposed they fly via Perim, confining sea crossing to 12 miles. We propose to inflict fine of 2,500 camels on implicated sections, who are practically isolated and demand surrender of man who killed Gibbs. He is known. Fine to be doubled in failure to comply with latter conditions and aeroplanes to be used to bomb stock on grazing grounds.[107]
Sir Winston Churchill reporting on the Burao incident at theHouse of Commons:
On 25th February the Governor of Somaliland telegraphed that an affray between tribesmen had taken place at Burao on the previous day, in the course of which Captain Allan Gibb, D.S.O., D.C.M., the District Commissioner at Burao, had been shot dead. Captain Gibb had advanced with his interpreter to quell the disturbance, when 1954 fire was opened upon him by some riflemen, and he was instantly killed. The murderers escaped under cover of falling darkness.Captain Gibb was an officer of long and valued service in Somaliland, whose loss I deeply regret. From the information available, his murder does not appear to have been premeditated, but it inevitably had a disturbing effect upon the surrounding tribes, and immediate dispositions of troops became necessary to ensure the apprehension and punishment of those responsible for the murder. On 27th February the Governor telegraphed that, to meet the situation which had arisen, he required two aeroplanes for purposes of demonstration, and suggested that two aeroplanes from the Royal Air Force Detachment at Aden should fly over to Berber a from Aden. He also telegraphed that in certain circumstances it might become necessary to ask for reinforcements of troops to be sent to the Protectorate.[108]
James Lawrence author ofImperial Rearguard: Wars of Empire writes
[Gibb]..was murdered by rioters during a protest against taxation at Burao. Governor Archer immediately called for aircraft which were at Burao within two days. The inhabitants of the native township were turned out of their houses, and the entire area was razed by a combination of bombing, machine-gun fire and burning.[109]
After the RAF aircraft bombed Burao to the ground, the leaders of the rebellion acquiesced, agreeing to pay a fine for Gibb's death, but they refused to identify and apprehend the accused individuals. Most of the men responsible for Gibb's shooting evaded capture. In light of the failure to implement the taxation without provoking a violent response, the British abandoned the policy altogether.[110][111][106]
The 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion was a rebellion waged by tribesmen of theHabr Je'lo clan in the formerBritish Somaliland protectorate against British authorities in July 1945 led bySheikh Bashir, aSomali religious leader.[112]
On 2 July, Sheikh Bashir collected 25 of his followers in the town ofWadamago and transported them on a lorry to the vicinity ofBurao, where he distributed arms to half of his followers. On the evening of 3 July, the group entered Burao and opened fire on the police guard of the central prison in the city, which was filled with prisoners arrested for previous demonstrations. The group also attacked the house of the district commissioner ofBurao District, Major Chambers, resulting in the death of Major Chamber's police guard before escaping to Bur Dhab, a strategic mountain south-east of Burao, where Sheikh Bashir's small unit occupied a fort and took up a defensive position in anticipation of a British counterattack.[113]
The British campaign against Sheikh Bashir's troops proved abortive after several defeats as his forces kept moving from place to place and avoiding any permanent location. No sooner had the expedition left the area, than the news travelled fast among the Somali nomads across the plain. The war had exposed the British administration to humiliation. The government came to a conclusion that another expedition against him would be useless; that they must build a railway, make roads and effectively occupy the whole of the protectorate, or else abandon the interior completely. The latter course was decided upon, and during the first months of 1945, the advance posts were withdrawn, and the British administration confined to the coast town ofBerbera.[114]
Sheikh Bashir settled many disputes among the tribes in the vicinity, which kept them from raiding each other. He was generally thought to settle disputes through the use of IslamicSharia and gathered around him a strong following.[115]
The British administration recruited Indian and South African troops, led by police general James David, to fight against Sheikh Bashir and had intelligence plans to capture him alive. The British authorities mobilised a police force, and eventually on 7 July found Sheikh Bashir and his unit in defensive positions behind their fortifications in the mountains of Bur Dhab. After clashes Sheikh Bashir and his second-in-command, Alin Yusuf Ali, nicknamed Qaybdiid, were killed. A third rebel was wounded and was captured along with two other rebels. The rest fled the fortifications and dispersed. On the British side the police general leading the British troops as well as a number of Indian and South African troops perished in the clashes, and a policeman was injured.[115]
After his death, Sheikh Bashir was widely hailed by locals as a martyr and was held in great reverence. His family took quick action to remove his body from the place of his death at Geela-eeg mountain, about 20 miles fromBurao.[116]
Initially theBritish government planned to delayprotectorate ofBritish Somaliland independence in favour of a gradual transfer of power. The arrangement would allow local politicians to gain more political experience in running the protectorate before official independence. However, strong pan-Somali nationalism and a landslide victory in the earlier elections encouraged them to demand independence and unification with the Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian Administration (the formerItalian Somaliland).[117]
In May 1960, the British government stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the thenprotectorate of British Somaliland, with the intention that the territory would unite with the Italian-administered Trust Territory of Somaliland.[118] The Legislative Council of British Somaliland passed a resolution in April 1960 requesting independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland, which was scheduled to gain independence on 1 July that year. The legislative councils of both territories agreed to this proposal following a joint conference inMogadishu.[119]On 26 June 1960, the former British Somaliland protectorate briefly obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, with the Trust Territory of Somaliland following suit five days later.[23] During its brief period of independence, theState of Somaliland garnered recognition from thirty-five sovereign states.[120] However, the United States merely acknowledged Somaliland's independence:
The United States did not extend formal recognition to Somaliland, but Secretary of State Herter sent a congratulatory message dated June 26 to the Somaliland Council of Ministers.[121]
The following day, on 27 June 1960, the newly convened Somaliland Legislative Assembly approved a bill that would formally allow for the union of the State of Somaliland with the Trust Territory of Somaliland on 1 July 1960.[119]
On 1 July 1960, theState of Somaliland and theTrust Territory of Somaliland (the formerItalian Somaliland) united as planned to form theSomali Republic.[122][123] Inspired bySomali nationalism, the northerners were initially enthusiastic about the union.[124] A government was formed byAbdullahi Issa, withAden Abdullah Osman Daar asPresident andAbdirashid Ali Shermarke asPrime Minister (later becoming president, from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popularreferendum, the Somali people ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960.[125] The constitution had little support in the former Somaliland and was believed to favour the south. Many northerners boycotted the referendum in protest, and over 60% of those who voted in the north were against the new constitution. Regardless, the referendum passed, and Somaliland became quickly dominated by southerners. As result, dissatisfaction became widespread in the north, and support for the union plummeted. British-trained Somaliland officers attempted arevolt to end the union in December 1961. Their uprising failed, and Somaliland continued to be marginalised by the south during the next decades.[124]
In 1967,Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. His murder was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which theSomalian Army seized power without encountering armed opposition. The putsch was spearheaded by Major GeneralMohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.[126] The new regime would go on to rule Somalia for the next 22 years.[127]
Themoral authority of Barre's government was gradually eroded, as many Somalis became disillusioned with life under military rule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communistDerg administration had sprung up across the country, which led to theSomaliland War of Independence. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of Hargeisa, aSomali National Movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988.[128][129] The bombardment was led by GeneralMohammed Said Hersi Morgan, Barre's son-in-law.[130]
In May 1988, the SNM launched amajor offensive on the cities of Hargeisa andBurao,[131][132][133] then the second and third largest cities ofSomalia.[134][135] The SNM captured Burao on 27 May within two hours,[136] while the SNM entered Hargeisa on 29 May, overrunning most of the city apart from its airport by 1 June.[132]
According to Abou Jeng and other scholars, the Barre regime rule was marked by a targeted brutal persecution of theIsaaq clan.[137][138] Mohamed Haji Ingiriis andChris Mullin state that the clampdown by the Barre regime against the Hargeisa-based Somali National Movement targeted the Isaaq clan, to which most members of the SNM belonged. They refer to the clampdown as theIsaaq Genocide or "Hargeisa Holocaust".[139][140] A United Nations investigation concluded that the crime of genocide wasconceived, planned and perpetrated by the Somali Government against the Isaaq people.[141] The number of civilian casualties is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000 according to various sources,[142][143][144] while some reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians.[145] Along with the deaths, Barre regime bombarded and razed the second and third largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa andBurao, respectively.[146] This displaced an estimated 400,000 local residents toHart Sheik in Ethiopia;[147][148][149] another 400,000 individuals were also internally displaced.[150][151][152]
The counterinsurgency by the Barre regime against the SNM targeted the rebel group's civilian base of support, escalating into a genocidal onslaught against the Isaaq clan. This led to anarchy and violent campaigns by fragmented militias, which then wrested power at a local level.[153] The Barre regime's persecution was not limited to the Isaaq, as it targeted other clans such as theHawiye.[154][155] The Barre regime collapsed in January 1991. Thereafter, as the political situation in Somaliland stabilised, the displaced people returned to their homes, the militias were demobilised or incorporated into the army, and tens of thousands of houses and businesses were reconstructed from rubble.[156]
Restoration of sovereignty (end of the unity with Somalia)
Although the SNM at its inception had a unionist constitution, it eventually began to pursue independence, looking to secede from the rest of Somalia.[157] Under the leadership ofAbdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur, the local administration declared the northwestern Somali territories independent at a conference held inBurao between 27 April 1991 and 15 May 1991.[158] Tuur then became the newly established Somaliland polity's first President, but subsequently renounced the separatist platform in 1994 and began instead to publicly seek and advocate reconciliation with the rest of Somalia under a power-sharingfederal system of governance.[157] A brief armed conflict had begun in January 1992 against rebels against Tuur in the period that he was in power, lasting until August 1992, when it was settled by a conference at the town of Sheikh.[159]
Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal was appointed as Tuur's successor in 1993 by the Grand Conference of National Reconciliation inBorama, which met for four months, leading to a gradual improvement in security, as well as a consolidation of the new territory.[160] Another armed conflict between the Somaliland government, now under Egal, and rebels began, as militias of the Eidagalley clan occupied Hargeisa airport for some time. Conflict re-erupted when troops of the government attacked the airport to drive out the Eidagalley militias in October 1994, sparking a new war that would spread out of Hargeisa and last until around April 1995, with a rebel defeat. Around the same time, Djiboutian-backed forces of the Issa-dominated United Somali Front attempted and failed to carve out Issa-inhabited areas of Somaliland.[159] Egal was reappointed in 1997, and remained in power until his death on 3 May 2002. The vice-president,Dahir Riyale Kahin, who was during the 1980s the highest-rankingNational Security Service (NSS) officer inBerbera in Siad Barre's government, was sworn in as president shortly afterward.[161] In 2003, Kahin became the first elected president of Somaliland.[162]
In August 2000, Egal's government distributed thousands of copies of the proposed constitution throughout Somaliland for consideration and review by the people. One critical clause of the 130 individual articles of the constitution would ratify Somaliland's self-declared independence and final separation from Somalia, restoring the nation's independence for the first time since 1960. In late March 2001, Egal set the date for the referendum on the Constitution for 31 May 2001.[165][166] 99.9% of eligible voters took part in the referendum and 97.1% of them voted in favour of the constitution.[167]
The executive is led by an electedpresident, whose government includes a vice-president and a Council of Ministers.[170] The Council of Ministers, who are responsible for the normal running of government, are nominated by the President and approved by the Parliament's House of Representatives.[171] The President must approve bills passed by the Parliament before they come into effect.[170] Presidential elections are confirmed by theNational Electoral Commission of Somaliland.[172] The President can serve a maximum of two five-year terms. The official residence and administrative headquarters of the President is theSomaliland Presidential Palace or State House in the capital city ofHargeisa.[173][174][175]
Legislative power is held by theParliament, which isbicameral. Its upper house is theHouse of Elders, chaired bySuleiman Mohamoud Adan, and the lower house is theHouse of Representatives,[170] chaired byYasin Haji Mohamoud.[176] Each house has 82 members. Members of the House of Elders are elected indirectly by local communities for six-year terms. The House of Elders shares power in passing laws with the House of Representatives, and also has the role of solving internal conflicts, and exclusive power to extend the terms of the President and representatives under circumstances that make an election impossible. Members of the House of Representatives are directly elected by the people for five-year terms. The House of Representatives shares voting power with the House of Elders, though it can pass a law that the House of Elders rejects if it votes for the law by a two-thirds majority and has absolute power in financial matters and confirmation of Presidential appointments (except for theChief Justice of the Supreme Court).[177]
The judicial system is divided into district courts (which deal with matters of family law and succession, lawsuits for amounts up to 3 millionSLSH, criminal cases punishable by up to 3 years' imprisonment or 3 million SL fines, and crimes committed by juveniles), regional courts (which deal with lawsuits and criminal cases not within the jurisdiction of district courts, labour and employment claims, and local government elections), regional appeals courts (which deal with all appeals from the district and regional courts), and theSupreme court (which deals with issues between courts and in government, and reviews its own decisions), which is the highest court and also functions as the Constitutional Court.[178]
Theguurti worked with rebel leaders to set up a new government, and was incorporated into the governance structure, becoming the Parliament'sHouse of Elders.[182] The government became in essence apower-sharing coalition of Somaliland's main clans, with seats in the Upper and Lower houses proportionally allocated to clans according to a predetermined formula, although not all clans are satisfied with their representation.[citation needed] In 2002, after several extensions of this interim government, Somaliland transitioned to multi-party democracy.[183] The election was limited to three parties, in an attempt to create ideology-based elections rather than clan-based elections.[182] As of December 2014, Somaliland has threepolitical parties: thePeace, Unity, and Development Party, theJustice and Development Party, andWadani. Under the Somaliland Constitution, a maximum of three political parties at the national level is allowed.[184] The minimum age required to vote is 15.
Freedom House ranks the Somaliland government as partly free.[185] Seth Kaplan (2011) argues that in contrast to southern Somalia and adjacent territories, Somaliland, the secessionist northwestern portion of Somalia, has built a more democratic mode of governance from the bottom up, with virtually no foreign assistance.[186] Specifically, Kaplan suggests that Somaliland has the most democratic political system in the Horn of Africa because it has been largely insulated from the extremist elements in the rest of Somalia and has viable electoral and legislative systems as well as a robust private sector-dominated economy, unlike neighbouring authoritarian governments. He largely attributes this to Somaliland's integration of customary laws and tradition with modern state structures, which he indicates most post-colonial states in Africa and the Middle East have not had the opportunity to do. Kaplan asserts that this has facilitated cohesiveness and conferred greater governmental legitimacy in Somaliland, as has the territory's comparatively homogeneous population, relatively equitable income distribution, a common fear of the south, and absence of interference by outside forces, which has obliged local politicians to observe a degree of accountability.[187]
Somaliland has political contacts with its neighboursEthiopia[188] andDjibouti,[189] non-UN member stateRepublic of China (Taiwan),[190][191] as well as with South Africa,[188] Sweden,[192] and the United Kingdom.[193] On 17 January 2007, the European Union (EU) sent a delegation for foreign affairs to discuss future co-operation.[194] TheAfrican Union (AU) has also sent a foreign minister to discuss the future of international acknowledgment, and on 29 and 30 January 2007, the ministers stated that they would discuss acknowledgement with the organisation's member states.[195]In early 2006, theNational Assembly for Wales extended an official invitation to the Somaliland government to attend the royal opening of theSenedd building inCardiff. The move was seen as an act of recognition by the Welsh Assembly of the breakaway government's legitimacy. TheForeign and Commonwealth Office made no comment on the invitation. Wales is home to a significant Somaliexpatriate community from Somaliland.[196]
On 24 September 2010,Johnnie Carson, Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, stated that the United States would be modifying its strategy in Somalia and would seek deeper engagement with the governments of Somaliland and Puntland while continuing to support the Somali Transitional Government.[198] Carson said the US would send aid workers and diplomats to Puntland and Somaliland and alluded to the possibility of future development projects. However, Carson emphasised that the US would not extend formal recognition to either region.[199]
The then-UK Minister for Africa,Henry Bellingham MP, met President Silanyo of Somaliland in November 2010 to discuss ways in which to increase the UK's engagement with Somaliland.[200] President Silanyo said during his visit to London:We have been working with the international community and the international community has been engaging with us, giving us assistance and working with us in our democratisation and development programmes. And we are very happy with the way the international community has been dealing with us, particularly the UK, the US, other European nations, and our neighbours who continue to seek recognition.[201]
Recognition of Somaliland by the UK was also supported by theUK Independence Party, which came third in the popular vote at the2015 general election, though only electing a single MP. The leader of UKIP,Nigel Farage, met with Ali Aden Awale, Head of the Somaliland UK Mission on Somaliland's national day, 18 May, in 2015, to express UKIP's support for Somaliland.[202]
In 2011, Somaliland and the neighbouring Puntland region each entered a security-relatedmemorandum of understanding with theSeychelles. Following the framework of an earlier agreement signed between the Transitional Federal Government and Seychelles, the memorandum isfor the transfer of convicted persons to prisons in 'Puntland' and 'Somaliland'.[203]
On 1 July 2020, Somaliland andTaiwan signed an agreement to set up representative offices to promote cooperation between the two countries.[204] Cooperation between the two polities on education, maritime security, and medicine began in 2009, and Taiwanese staff entered Somaliland in February 2020 to prepare for the representative office.[205] As of 2023, Taiwan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs refers to Somaliland as a country.[32]
On 1 January 2024, amemorandum of understanding was signed between Ethiopia and Somaliland, where Ethiopia will lease the port ofBerbera on theGulf of Aden, and a 20-kilometre stretch of Gulf of Aden coastline, for 20 years, in exchange for eventual recognition of Somaliland as an independent state and a stake in theEthiopian Airlines. If this agreement is honoured, Ethiopia would become the first United Nations member state to recognise the breakaway nation.[206][207]
PresidentSilanyo andAli Khalif signing the Somaliland-Khatumo Agreement inAynabo in October 2017Map showing the eastern boundaries of Somaliland by the Somaliland Treaties including the Anglo-Italian boundary.
Puntland, a federal member state ofSomalia, disputes theHarti-inhabited territory in the former British Somaliland protectorate based on kinship. In 1998, the northern Darod clans established the state, and theDhulbahante andWarsangali clans wholly participated in its foundation.[209][210][211]
The Harti were the second most powerful clan confederation in Somaliland until the 1993Borama Conference, when they were replaced in importance by the Gadabursi.[212] TheDhulbahante andWarsangali clans established two separate administrations in the early 1990s.[213] First, the former was to hold theBoocame I conference in May 1993, while the later held a conference inHadaaftimo in September 1992.[214] In both conferences the desire to remain part ofSomalia was expressed.
Tensions between Puntland and Somaliland escalated into violence several times between 2002 and 2009. In October 2004, and again in April and October 2007, armed forces of Somaliland and Puntland clashed near the town ofLas Anod, the capital of Sool region. In October 2007, Somaliland troops took control of the town.[215] While celebrating Puntland's 11th anniversary on 2 August 2009, Puntland officials vowed to recapture Las Anod. While Somaliland claims independent statehood and therefore "split up" the "old" Somalia, Puntland works for the re-establishment of a united butfederal Somali state.[216]
Somaliland forces took control of the town ofLas Qorey in easternSanaag on 10 July 2008, along with positions 5 km (3 mi) east of the town. The defence forces completed their operations on 9 July 2008 after the Maakhir and Puntland militia in the area left their positions.[217]
In the late 2000s,SSC Movement (Hoggaanka Badbaadada iyo Mideynta SSC), a local unionist group based inSanaag was formed with the goal to establish its own regional administration (Sool, Sanaag and Cayn, or SSC).[157] This later evolved intoKhatumo State, which was established in 2012. The local administration and its constituents does not recognise the Somaliland government's claim to sovereignty or to its territory.[218]
On 20 October 2017 inAynabo, an agreement was signed with the Somaliland government which stipulated the amendment of Somaliland's constitution and to integrate the organisation into the Somaliland government.[219][220] This signalled the end of the organisation even though it was an unpopular event among theDhulbahante community.[221][219]
Commemoration (on 2 February 2021) of the 27th anniversary of the establishment of theSomaliland National Army
TheSomaliland Armed Forces are the main military command in Somaliland. Along with theSomaliland Police and all other internal security forces, they are overseen by Somaliland'sMinistry of Defence. The current head of Somaliland's Armed Forces is the Minister of Defence,Abdiqani Mohamoud Aateye.[222] Following the declaration of independence, various pre-existing militia affiliated with different clans were absorbed into a centralised military structure. The resultant large military takes up around half of the country's budget, but the action served to help prevent inter-clan violence.[223]: 2–3
The Somaliland Army consists of twelve divisions equipped primarily with light weaponry, though it is equipped with somehowitzers and mobilerocket launchers. Its armoured vehicles and tanks are mostly of Soviet design, though there are some ageing Western vehicles and tanks in its arsenal. The Somaliland Navy (often referred to as a Coast Guard by theAssociated Press), despite a crippling lack of equipment and formal training, has apparently had some success at curbing both piracy andillegal fishing within Somaliland waters.[224][225]
According to the 2023Freedom House report, Somaliland has seen a consistent erosion of political rights and civic space. Public figures and journalists face pressure from authorities. Minority clans are subject to economic and political marginalisation, and violence against women remains a serious problem.[226]
The Republic of Somaliland is divided into six administrative regions:Awdal,Sahil,Maroodi Jeeh,Togdheer,Sanaag andSool. The regions are divided into eighteen administrative districts.
The following regions are taken fromMichael Walls: State Formation in Somaliland: Bringing Deliberation to Institutionalism from 2011,Somaliland: The Strains of Success from 2015 and ActionAID, a humanitarian organisation currently active in Somaliland.[227][228][229]
In 2019, the local government law passed in 2019 (Lr. 23/2019, hereinafter referred to as the 2019 local government law), regions that "Somaliland is divided into six regions (Article 9 of the same law)".[clarification needed][230] The 2019 Local Government Act came into force on 4 January 2020.[231]
Under Article 11, Section 1 of the Act, the regional boundaries are supposed to correspond to the boundaries of the six districts under theSomaliland protectorate; however, theSiad Barre era boundaries subsist as the de facto boundaries.[230]
Somaliland is situated in the northwest of recognised Somalia. It lies between 08°N and 11°30'N, and between 42°30'E and 49°00'E.[37] It is bordered byDjibouti to the west,Ethiopia to the south, andSomalia to the east. Somaliland has an 850 kilometres (528 mi) coastline with the majority lying along theGulf of Aden.[223]: 1 In terms of landmass, Somaliland has an area of 176,120 km2 (68,000 sq mi).[7]
Somaliland's climate is a mixture of wet and dry conditions. The northern part of the region is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 metres (3,000 and 6,900 ft) above sea level. TheAwdal,Sahil andMaroodi Jeex regions are fertile and mountainous, whileTogdheer is mostlysemi-desert with little fertile greenery around. The Awdal region is also known for its offshore islands,coral reefs andmangroves.
A scrub-covered, semi-desert plain referred as theGuban lies parallel to the Gulf of Aden littoral. With a width of twelve kilometres (7.5 miles) in the west to as little as two kilometres (1.2 miles) in the east, the plain is bisected by watercourses that are essentially beds of dry sand except during the rainy seasons. When the rains arrive, the Guban's low bushes and grass clumps transform into lush vegetation.[232] This coastal strip is part of theEthiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion.
Cal Madow is a mountain range in the eastern part of the country. Extending from the northwest ofErigavo to several kilometres west of the city ofBosaso in neighbouring Somalia, it features Somaliland's highestpeak,Shimbiris, which sits at an elevation of about 2,416 metres (7,927 ft).[233] The rugged east–west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains also lie to the interior of the Gulf of Aden littoral.[232] In the central regions, the northern mountain ranges give way to shallow plateaus and typically dry watercourses that are referred to locally as theOgo. The Ogo's western plateau, in turn, gradually merges into theHaud, an important grazing area for livestock.[232] In the east, the Haud is separated from the Ain and Nugal valleys by theBuur Dhaab mountain range.[234]
Somaliland is located north of theequator. It is semi-arid. The average daily temperatures range from 25 to 35 °C (77 to 95 °F). The sun passes vertically overhead twice a year, in April and in August or September. Somaliland consists of three main topographic zones: a coastal plain (Guban), the coastal range (Ogo), and a plateau (Hawd). The coastal plain is a zone with high temperatures and low rainfall. Summer temperatures in the region easily average over 100 °F (38 °C). However, temperatures come down during the winter, and both human and livestock populations increase dramatically in the region.
The coastal range (Ogo) is a high plateau to the immediate south of Guban. Its elevation ranges from 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above sea level in the West to 7,000 feet (2,100 m) in the East. Rainfall is heavier there than in Guban, although it varies considerably within the zone. The plateau (Hawd) region lies to the south of Ogo range. It is generally more heavily populated during the wet season, when surface water is available. It is also an important area for grazing. Somalilanders recognise four seasons in the year; GU and Hagaa comprise spring and summer in that order, and Dayr and Jiilaal correspond to autumn and winter, respectively.[235][failed verification]
The average annual rainfall is 446 millimetres (17.6 in) in some parts of country according to availability of rain gauge, and most of it comes during Gu and Dayr. Gu, which is the first, or major, rainy season (late March, April, May, and early June), is where Ogo range and Hawd experience the heaviest rainfall. This constitutes the period of fresh grazing and abundant surface water. It is also the breeding season for livestock. Hagaa (from late June through August) is usually dry although there are often some scattered showers in the Ogo range, these are known as Karan rains. Hagaa tends to be hot and windy in most parts of the country. Dayr (September, October, and early November), which roughly corresponds to autumn, is the second, or minor, wet season; the amount of precipitation is generally less than that of Gu. Jilaal, or winter, falls in the coolest and driest months of the year (from late November to early March). It is a season of thirst. Hawd receive virtually no rainfall in winter. The rainfall in the Guban zone, known as "Hays", comes from December to February. The humidity of the country varies from 63% in the dry season to 82% in the wet season.[236]
Somaliland has the fourth-lowest GDP per capita in the world, and there are huge socio-economic challenges for Somaliland, with an unemployment rate between 60 and 70% among youth, if not higher. According to ILO, illiteracy exists up to 70% in several areas of Somaliland, especially among females and the elder population.[237][238]
Since Somaliland is unrecognised, international donors have found it difficult to provide aid. As a result, the government relies mainly upon tax receipts andremittances from the largeSomali diaspora, which contribute significantly to the Somaliland economy.[239] Remittances come to Somaliland throughmoney transfer companies, the largest of which isDahabshiil,[240] one of the few Somali money transfer companies that conform to modern money-transfer regulations. TheWorld Bank estimates that remittances worth approximately US$1 billion reach Somalia annually fromémigrés working in theGulf states, Europe and the United States. Analysts say that Dahabshiil may handle around two-thirds of that figure and as much as half of it reaches Somaliland alone.[241]
Since the late 1990s, service provisions have significantly improved through limited government provisions and contributions fromnon-governmental organisations, religious groups, the international community (especially the diaspora), and the growing private sector. Local and municipal governments have been developing key public service provisions such as water in Hargeisa and education, electricity, and security in Berbera.[239] In 2009, theBanque pour le Commerce et l'Industrie – Mer Rouge (BCIMR), based inDjibouti, opened a branch in Hargeisa and became the first bank in the country since the 1990 collapse of theCommercial and Savings Bank of Somalia.[242] In 2014,Dahabshil Bank International became the country's first commercial bank.[243] In 2017Premier Bank from Mogadishu opened a branch in Hargeisa.[244]
TheSomaliland shilling, which cannot easily be exchanged outside of Somaliland on account of the nation's lack of recognition, is regulated by theBank of Somaliland, thecentral bank, which was established constitutionally in 1994.
The most popular and used payment system in the country is the ZAAD service, which is a mobile money transfer service that was launched in Somaliland in 2009 by the largest mobile operatorTelesom.[245][246]
The state-runSomaliland National TV is the main national public service television channel, and was launched in 2005. Its radio counterpart isRadio Hargeisa.
Livestock is the backbone of Somaliland's economy. Sheep, camels, and cattle are shipped from theBerbera port and sent to Gulf Arab countries, such as Saudi Arabia.[249] The country is home to some of the largest livestock markets, known in Somali asseylad, in theHorn of Africa, with as many as 10,000 heads of sheep and goats sold daily in the markets ofBurao andYirowe, many of whom shipped toGulf states via theport ofBerbera.[250][251] The markets handle livestock from all over the Horn of Africa.[252]
Agriculture is generally considered to be a potentially successful industry, especially in the production of cereals and horticulture. Mining also has potential, though simplequarrying represents the extent of current operations, despite the presence of diverse quantities of mineral deposits.[24]
The primary method of agricultural production is rain-fed farming. Cereals are the primary crops cultivated. About 70% of the rain-fed agricultural land is used for the main crop, sorghum, while maize occupies another 25% of the land.[253] Scattered marginal lands are also used to grow other crops like barley, millet, groundnuts, beans, and cowpeas. The majority of farms are located near riverbanks, along the banks of streams (togs) and other water sources. The primary methods of channelling water from the source to the farm are floods or crude earth canals that divert perennial water (springs) to the farm. Fruits and vegetables are grown for commercial use on the majority of irrigated farms.[253]
Naasa Hablood, also known as Virgin's Breast Mountain
Therock art and caves atLaas Geel, situated on the outskirts of Hargeisa, are a popular local tourist attraction. Totaling ten caves, they were discovered by a French archaeological team in 2002 and are believed to date back around 5,000 years. The government and locals keep thecave paintings safe and only a restricted number of tourists are allowed entry.[254] Other notable sights include the Freedom Arch in Hargeisa and theWar Memorial in the city centre. Natural attractions are very common around the region. TheNaasa Hablood are twin hills located on the outskirts of Hargeisa that Somalis in the region consider to be a majestic natural landmark.[255][failed verification]
The Ministry of Tourism has also encouraged travellers to visit historic towns and cities in Somaliland. The historic town ofSheekh is located near Berbera and is home to old British colonial buildings that have remained untouched for over forty years.Berbera also houses historic and impressiveOttoman architectural buildings. Another equally famous historic city isZeila. Zeila was once part of theOttoman Empire, a dependency ofYemen andEgypt and a major trade city during the 19th century. The city has been visited for its old colonial landmarks, offshoremangroves and coral reefs, towering cliffs, and beach. Thenomadic culture of Somaliland has also attracted tourists. Most nomads live in the countryside.[255]
In June 2016, the Somaliland government signed an agreement withDP World to manage the strategic port ofBerbera with the aim of enhancing productive capacity and acting as an alternative port for landlocked Ethiopia.[259][260]
Oil exploration
In 1958, the first test well was dug by Standard Vacuum (Exxon Mobil and Shell) in Dhagax Shabeel, Saaxil region. These wells were selected without field data or seismic testing and were solely based on the geological makeup of the region. Three of the four test wells were successful in producing of light crude oil.[261]
In August 2012, the Somaliland government awardedGenel Energy a licence to explore oil within its territory. Results of a surface seep study completed early in 2015 confirmed the outstanding potential offered in the SL-10B, SL-13, and Oodweyne blocks, with estimated oil reserves of 1 billion barrels each.[262] Genel Energy is set to drill an exploration well for SL-10B and SL-13 block inBuur-Dhaab, 20 kilometres northwest ofAynaba by the end of 2018.[263] In December 2021,Genel Energy signed a farm-out deal with OPIC Somaliland Corporation, backed byTaiwan'sCPC Corporation, on the SL10B/13 block nearyAynaba.[264] According to Genel, the block could contain more than 5 billion barrels of prospective resources.[264] Drilling in SL-10B and SL-13 is scheduled to begin in late 2023, or early 2024 according to Genel.[265]
There has not been an official census conducted in Somaliland since theSomalia census in 1975, while the results from a 1986 census were never released into public domain.[270] A population estimate was conducted byUNFPA in 2014 primarily for the purpose of distributing United Nations funding among the regions and to offer a reliable population estimate in lieu of a census. This population estimate puts the combined population of the regions of Somaliland at 3.5 million.[271] The Somaliland government estimates that there are 6,200,000 residents as of 2024,[4] an increase from a 2021 government estimate of 5,700,000.[9]
The last British population estimate on the basis of clan in Somaliland occurred before independence in 1960,[272] according to which, out of some 650,000 ethnic Somalis belonging to three major clans residing in the protectorate, theIsaaq,Darod andDir made up 66%, 19% and 16% of the population, respectively.[273][274]
Map of British Somaliland indicating clan territories and respective populations.Map of the British Somaliland Protectorate.
The largest clan family in Somaliland is theIsaaq,[275] currently making up 80% of Somaliland's population.[276][277][278][279] The populations of the five largest cities in Somaliland –Hargeisa,Burao,Berbera,Erigavo andGabiley – are predominantly Isaaq.[280][281] The second largest clan is theGadabursi of theDir clan[282][283][284] followed by theHarti of theDarod.[285] Other small clans are often not accounted for in such estimates, however, clans including Gabooye, Gahayle, Jibrahil, Magaadle, Fiqishini, and Akisho settle in Somaliland.
Somaliland in addition has an estimated 600,000[286] to a million[287] strong diaspora, mainly residing in Western Europe, the Middle East, North America, and several other African countries.[286][287]
TheArap subclan of theIsaaq predominantly live in the southern portion of theMaroodi Jeex region including the capital city ofHargeisa.[291] Additionally, they form the majority of communities living in theHawd region includingBaligubadle.[291] The Arap are also well represented inSahil andTogdheer regions.[292][293]
TheGarhajis subclan of theIsaaq have a sizeable presence among the population inhabiting the southern and eastern portions ofMaroodi Jeex region including SouthernHargeisa andSalahlay. TheGarhajis are also represented well in westernTogdheer region, mainly inOodweyne andBurao, as well asSheekh andBerbera inSahil region. TheGarhajis also have a significant presence in the western and central areas ofSanaag region as well, including the regional capitalErigavo as well asMaydh.[294]
TheWarsangali, another Harti Darod sub-clan, live in the eastern parts ofSanaag, with their population being mainly concentrated inLas Qorey district.[302]
Many people in Somaliland speak at least two of the three national languages:Somali, Arabic and English, although the rate of bilingualism is lower in rural areas. Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 designates the official language of Somaliland to be Somali,[37] though Arabic is a mandatory subject in school and is used in mosques around the region and English is spoken and taught in schools.[303]
The Somali language is the mother tongue of theSomali people, the nation's most populous ethnic group. It is a member of theCushitic branch of theAfro-Asiatic language family, and its nearest relatives are theOromo,Afar andSaho languages.[304] Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages,[305] with academic studies of it dating from before 1900.
With few exceptions, Somalis in Somaliland and elsewhere areMuslims, the majority belonging to theSunni branch ofIslam and theShafi'i school ofIslamic jurisprudence.[317] As with southern Somali coastal towns such asMogadishu andMerca, there is also a presence ofSufism, Islamic mysticism; particularly the Arab Rifa'iyatariiqa.[318] Through the influence of the diaspora from Yemen and theGulf states, stricterWahhabism also has a noticeable presence.[319] Though traces of pre-Islamic traditional religion exist in Somaliland, Islam is dominant to the Somali sense of national identity. Many of the Somali social norms come from their religion. For example, most Somali women wear ahijab when they are in public. In addition, religious Somalis abstain from pork andalcohol, and also try to avoid receiving or paying any form of interest (usury). Muslims generally congregate on Friday afternoons for a sermon and group prayer.[320]
Under theConstitution of Somaliland, Islam is thestate religion, and no laws may violate the principles ofSharia. The promotion of any religion other than Islam is illegal, and the state promotes Islamic tenets and discourages behaviour contrary toIslamic morals.[321]
Somaliland has very few Christians. In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Christians in the Somali territories, with about 100–200 followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the handful ofCatholic missions in the British Somaliland protectorate.[322] The small number of Christians in the region today mostly come from similar Catholic institutions inAden,Djibouti, andBerbera.[323]
Somaliland falls within the Episcopal Area of the Horn of Africa as part of Somalia, under theAnglican Diocese of Egypt. However, there are no current congregations in the territory.[324] TheRoman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio is designated to serve the area as part of Somalia. However, since 1990 there has been no Bishop of Mogadishu, and the Bishop of Djibouti acts as Apostolic Administrator.[325] TheAdventist Mission also indicates that there are no Adventist members.[326]
While 40.5% of households in Somaliland have access to improved water sources, almost a third of households lie at least an hour away from their primary source of drinking water. 1 in 11 children die before their first birthday, and 1 in 9 die before their fifth birthday.[327]
The UNICEF multiple indicator cluster survey (MICS) in 2006 found that 94.8% of women in Somaliland had undergone some form offemale genital mutilation;[328] in 2018 the Somaliland government issued a fatwa condemning the two most severe forms of FGM, but no laws are present to punish those responsible for the practice.[328]
Theclan groupings of the Somali people are importantsocial units, and have a central role in Somali culture and politics. Clans arepatrilineal and are often divided into sub-clans, sometimes with many sub-divisions.[330]
Somali society is traditionally ethnicallyendogamous. To extend ties of alliance, marriage is often to anotherethnic Somali from a different clan. Thus, for example, a 1954 study observed that in 89 marriages contracted by men of theDhulbahante clan, 55 (62%) were with women of Dhulbahante sub-clans other than those of their husbands; 30 (33.7%) were with women of surrounding clans of other clan families (Isaaq, 28;Hawiye, 3); and 3 (4.3%) were with women of other clans of theDarod clan family (Majerteen 2,Ogaden 1).[331]
Islam and poetry have been described as the twin pillars of Somali culture. Somali poetry is mainly oral, with both male and female poets. They use things that are common in the Somali language as metaphors. Almost all Somalis areSunni Muslims and Islam is vitally important to the Somali sense ofnational identity. Most Somalis do not belong to a specific mosque or sect and can pray in any mosque they find.[320]
Celebrations come in the form of religious festivities. Two of the most important areEid ul-Adha andEid ul-Fitr, which marks the end of the fasting month. Families get dressed up to visit one another, and money is donated to the poor. Other holidays include 26 June and 18 May, which celebrate British Somaliland's independence and the Somaliland region's establishment, respectively; the latter, however, is not recognised by the international community.[332]
Henna powder is mixed with water and then applied on the hair.
In thenomadic culture, where one's possessions are frequently moved, there is little reason for theplastic arts to be highly developed. Somalis embellish and decorate their woven and wooden milk jugs (haamo; the most decorative jugs are made inCeerigaabo) as well as wooden headrests.[citation needed] Traditional dance is also important, though mainly as a form of courtship among young people. One such dance known asCiyaar Soomaali is a local favourite.[333]
An important form of art in Somali culture ishenna art. The custom of applying henna dates back to antiquity. During special occasions, a Somali woman's hands and feet are expected to be covered in decorativemendhi. Girls and women usually apply or decorate their hands and feet in henna on festive celebrations likeEid or weddings. The henna designs vary from very simple to highly intricate. Somali designs vary, with some more modern and simple while others are traditional and intricate. Traditionally, only women apply it asbody art, as it is considered a feminine custom. Henna is not only applied on the hands and feet but is also used as adye. Somali men and women alike use henna as a dye to change their hair colour. Women are free to apply henna on their hair as most of the time they are wearing ahijab.[334][failed verification]
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^James Marshall (1832).Royal Naval Biography: Or, Memoirs of the Services of All the Flag-officers, Superannuated Rear-admirals, Retired-captains, Post-captains, and Commanders, Whose Names Appeared on the Admiralty List of Sea Officers at the Commencement of the Present Year, Or who Have Since Been Promoted, Illustrated by a Series of Historical and Explanatory Notes ... with Copious Addenda: Captains. Commanders. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. p. 438.
^Hertslet's Commercial Treaties: A Complete Collection of the Treaties and Conventions, and Reciprocal Regulations, at Present Subsisting Between Great Britain and Foreign Powers, and of the Laws, Decrees, and Orders in Council, Concerning the Same, So Far as They Relate to Commerce and Navigation, to the Repression and Abolition of the Slave Trade, and to the Privileges and Interests of the Subjects of the High Contracting Parties, Volume 13, pg 5
^Hugh Chisholm (ed.),The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.
^Somalia : a government at war with its own people: testimonies about the killings and the conflict in the north. New York: Africa Watch Committee. 1990. p. 128.ISBN0-929692-33-0.OCLC24108168.
^Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (2 July 2016). ""We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia".African Security.9 (3):237–258.doi:10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475.ISSN1939-2206.S2CID148145948.
^Human Rights Watch (Organization), Chris Albin-Lackey,Hostages to peace: threats to human rights and democracy in Somaliland, (Human Rights Watch: 2009), p.13.
^Kaplan, Seth (July 2008)."The Remarkable Story of Somaliland"(PDF).Journal of Democracy.19 (3): 248, 252.doi:10.1353/jod.0.0009.S2CID153442685. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 7 August 2020. Retrieved6 August 2017.The Republic of Somaliland, the secessionist northwestern slice of Somalia that declared independence in 1991, has a far better democratic track record than any of its neighbors despite—or, perhaps, because of—a dearth of assistance from the international community. ... Whereas attempts to build stable state structures in Mogadishu have mostly been top-down, with outsiders in the lead, Somaliland has constructed a functioning government from the bottom up, on its own, with little outside assistance.
^Kaplan, Seth (July 2008)."The Remarkable Story of Somaliland"(PDF).Journal of Democracy.19 (3):248–249, 253.doi:10.1353/jod.0.0009.S2CID153442685. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 7 August 2020. Retrieved6 August 2017.Abutting the Gulf of Aden just south of the Red Sea, across the water from Yemen and Saudi Arabia, and bordered by Ethiopia and the rest of Somalia, this strategically important territory is not even recognised by the international community but undoubtedly has the most democratic political system in the entire Horn of Africa. In contrast to the chaos and extremist threats that continue to plague much of the rest of Somalia—and unlike the authoritarian regimes that throng its neighborhood—Somaliland has held three consecutive competitive elections since its constitutional referendum in 2001, has a parliament controlled by opposition parties, and boasts a vibrant economy dominated by the private sector. Somaliland has achieved these successes by constructing a set of governing bodies rooted in traditional Somali concepts of governance by consultation and consent. In contrast to most postcolonial states in Africa and the Middle East, Somaliland has had a chance to administer itself using customary norms, values, and relationships. In fact, its integration of traditional ways of governance within a modern state apparatus has helped it to achieve greater cohesion and legitimacy and— not coincidentally—create greater room for competitive elections and public criticism than exists in most similarly endowed territories. ... Somaliland has profited from a unity conferred by its comparatively homogeneous population, modest disparities in personal wealth, widespread fear of the south, and a lack of outside interference that might have undermined the accountability that has been forced on its leaders. This cohesiveness—which makes Somaliland sharply distinct from both Somalia and most other African states—has combined with the enduring strength of traditional institutions of self-governance to mold a unique form of democracy.
^Hoehne, Markus V. (2009). "Mimesis and mimicry in dynamics of state and identity formation in northern Somalia".Africa.79 (2):252–281.doi:10.3366/E0001972009000710.S2CID145753382.
^Doon, Run."Current Affairs in the Horn of Africa"(PDF).Anglo-Somali Society Journal. Autumn 2017 (Somaliland, Khaatumo agreement reached). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 29 June 2020. Retrieved12 September 2020.
^"Somaliland: Where we Work".Action Aid. Archived fromthe original on 10 January 2017.ActionAid International Somaliland (AAIS) supports poor and marginalised communities in three of six Somaliland administrative regions...
^Wiafe-Amoako, Francis (4 October 2018).Africa 2018–2019. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 238.ISBN978-1-4758-4179-4.[...] Isaaq clans representing 80% of the population of former British Somaliland reached an agreement with other clans.
^abRenders, Marleen. (2012).Consider Somaliland: state-building with traditional leaders and institutions. Leiden: BRILL. p. xxi.ISBN978-90-04-22254-0.OCLC775301944.
^Ghani, Mohamed Hassan; Abdi, Suad Ibrahim; Duale, Ali Ege; Hersi, Mohamed Farah (30 November 2010)."Democracy in Somaliland: Challenges and Opportunities"(PDF).Academy of Peace and Development. p. 76. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 26 November 2022. Retrieved10 July 2020.
^Briggs, Philip Robarts (2019).Somaliland: with the overland route from Addis Ababa via eastern Ethiopia the Bradt Travel Guide (2nd ed.). Chalfont St Peter: Bradt. p. 130.ISBN978-1-78477-605-3.
^Charles George Herbermann,The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic church, Volume 14, (Robert Appleton company: 1913), p.139.
Michael Schoiswohl:Status and (Human Rights) Obligations of Non-Recognized De FactoRegimes in International Law: The Case of 'Somaliland' (Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden 2004),ISBN90-04-13655-X
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