Radiant light and heat from the Sun, harnessed with technology
This article is about radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of technologies. For more detail about the generation of electricity using solar energy, seeSolar power. For the academic journal, seeSolar Energy (journal).
In 2011, theInternational Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries'energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible, and mostly import-independent resource, enhancesustainability, reducepollution, lower the costs ofmitigating global warming .... these advantages are global".[1][4]
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upperatmosphere.[6] Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest, 122 PW, is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. Thespectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across thevisible andnear-infrared ranges with a small part in thenear-ultraviolet.[7] Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150–300 watts/m2, or 3.5–7.0kWh/m2 per day.[8]
Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's land surface, oceans – which cover about 71% of the globe – and atmosphere. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causingatmospheric circulation orconvection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing thewater cycle. Thelatent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind,cyclones andanticyclones.[9] Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C.[10] Byphotosynthesis, green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy, which produces food, wood and thebiomass from whichfossil fuels are derived.[11]
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 122 PW·year = 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year.[12] In 2002 (2019), this was more energy in one hour (one hour and 25 minutes) than the world used in one year.[13][14] Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass.[15]
1 Energy given inExajoule (EJ) = 1018J = 278TWh 2 Consumption as of year 2019
The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire. In 2021,Carbon Tracker Initiative estimated the land area needed to generate all our energy from solar alone was 450,000km2 — or about the same as the area ofSweden, or the area ofMorocco, or the area ofCalifornia (0.3% of the Earth's total land area).[20]
Solar technologies are categorized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on the distance from the Equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all types of renewable energy, other thangeothermal power andtidal power, are derived either directly or indirectly from the Sun.
Active solar techniques use photovoltaics,concentrated solar power,solar thermal collectors, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful output. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing[clarification needed] the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are consideredsupply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternative resources and are generally considered demand-side technologies.[21]
In 2000, theUnited Nations Development Programme, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, andWorld Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year. This took into account factors such as insolation, cloud cover, and the land that is usable by humans. It was stated that solar energy has a global potential of 1,600 to 49,800 exajoules (4.4×1014 to 1.4×1016 kWh) per year(see table below).[22]
Annual solar energy potential by region (Exajoules)[22]
Region
North America
Latin America and Caribbean
Western Europe
Central and Eastern Europe
Former Soviet Union
Middle East and North Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Pacific Asia
South Asia
Centrally planned Asia
Pacific OECD
Minimum
181.1
112.6
25.1
4.5
199.3
412.4
371.9
41.0
38.8
115.5
72.6
Maximum
7,410
3,385
914
154
8,655
11,060
9,528
994
1,339
4,135
2,263
Notes:
Total global annual solar energy potential amounts to 1,575 EJ (minimum) to 49,837 EJ (maximum)
Data reflects assumptions of annual clear sky irradiance, annual average sky clearance, and available land area. All figures given in Exajoules.
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation.[23]
Early commercial adaptation
In 1878, at the Universal Exposition in Paris,Augustin Mouchot successfully demonstrated a solar steam engine but could not continue development because of cheap coal and other factors.
1917 patent drawing of Shuman's solar collector
In 1897,Frank Shuman, a US inventor, engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether, which has a lower boiling point than water and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine. In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power Company with the intent of building larger solar power plants. He, along with his technical advisor A.S.E. Ackermann and British physicist SirCharles Vernon Boys,[24] developed an improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon collector boxes, increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used instead of ether. Shuman then constructed a full-scale steam engine powered by low-pressure water, enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912.
Shuman built the world's firstsolar thermal power station inMaadi,Egypt, between 1912 and 1913. His plant usedparabolic troughs to power a 45–52 kilowatts (60–70 hp) engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres (4,800 imp gal; 5,800 US gal) of water per minute from theNile River to adjacent cotton fields. Although the outbreak of World War I and the discovery ofcheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy, Shuman's vision, and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy.[25] In 1916 Shuman was quoted in the media advocating solar energy's utilization, saying:
We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in the tropics and have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the Sun.
Solar water heaters facing theSun to maximize gain
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In middle geographical latitudes (between 40 degrees north and 40 degrees south), 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use, with water temperatures up to 60 °C (140 °F), can be provided by solar heating systems.[27] The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools.[28]
As of 2015, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was approximately 436thermalgigawatt (GWth), and China is the world leader in their deployment with 309 GWth installed, taken up 71% of the market.[29]Israel andCyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them.[30] In the United States, Canada, and Australia, heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GWth as of 2005.[21]
In the United States,heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for 30% (4.65 EJ/yr) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ/yr) of the energy used in residential buildings.[31][32] Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy. Use of solar for heating can roughly be divided intopassive solar concepts andactive solar concepts, depending on whether active elements such assun tracking and solar concentrator optics are used.
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement, and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However, they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting, and shading conditions. When duly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.[33]
Asolar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated, causing anupdraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials[34] in a way that mimics greenhouses.
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter.[35] Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating.[36] In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator-facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting wintersolar gain.[37]
Parabolic dish produces steam for cooking, inAuroville, India.
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying, andpasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers, and reflector cookers.[38] The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built byHorace de Saussure in 1767.[39] A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C (194–302 °F).[40] Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C (599 °F) and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.[41]
Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was theSolar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, US where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water and had a one-hour peak load thermal storage.[42] Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids throughevaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams.[43]
Clothes lines,clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the "right to dry" clothes.[44] Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C (40 °F) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60 °C (113–140 °F).[45] The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems.[45] As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 square metres (380,000 sq ft) had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m2 (9,300 sq ft) collector inCosta Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m2 (14,000 sq ft) collector inCoimbatore, India, used for drying marigolds.[46][needs update]
Solar distillation can be used to makesaline orbrackish water potable. The first recorded instance of this was by 16th-century Arab alchemists.[47] A large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in theChilean mining town of Las Salinas.[48] The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m2 (51,000 sq ft), could produce up to 22,700 L (5,000 imp gal; 6,000 US gal) per day and operate for 40 years.[48] Individualstill designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale applications.[47]
Solar waterdisinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plasticpolyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours.[49] Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions.[50] It is recommended by theWorld Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage.[51] Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water.[50]
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treatwaste water without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is thatalgae grow in such ponds and consumecarbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable.[52][53]
Molten salt technology
Molten salt can be employed as athermal energy storage method to retain thermal energy collected by asolar tower orsolar trough of aconcentrated solar power plant so that it can be used to generate electricity in bad weather or at night. It was demonstrated in theSolar Two project from 1995 to 1999. The system is predicted to have an annual efficiency of 99%, a reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity, versus converting heat directly into electricity.[54][55][56] The molten salt mixtures vary. The most extended mixture containssodium nitrate,potassium nitrate andcalcium nitrate. It is non-flammable and non-toxic, and has already been used in the chemical and metals industries as a heat-transport fluid. Hence, experience with such systems exists in non-solar applications.
The salt melts at 131 °C (268 °F). It is kept liquid at 288 °C (550 °F) in an insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar collector where the focused irradiance heats it to 566 °C (1,051 °F). It is then sent to a hot storage tank. This is so well insulated that the thermal energy can be usefully stored for up to a week.[57]
When electricity is needed, the hot salt is pumped to a conventional steam-generator to producesuperheated steam for a turbine/generator as used in any conventional coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100-megawatt turbine would need a tank about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in diameter to drive it for four hours by this design.
Severalparabolic trough power plants in Spain[58] andsolar power tower developerSolarReserve use this thermal energy storage concept. TheSolana Generating Station in the U.S. has six hours of storage by molten salt. In Chile, The Cerro Dominador power plant has a 110 MW solar-thermal tower, the heat is transferred tomolten salts.[59]The molten salts then transfer their heat in a heat exchanger to water, generating superheated steam, which feeds a turbine that transforms the kinetic energy of the steam into electric energy using theRankine cycle.[60] In this way, the Cerro Dominador plant is capable of generating around 110 MW of power.[61]The plant has an advanced storage system enabling it to generate electricity for up to 17.5 hours without direct solar radiation, which allows it to provide a stable electricity supply without interruptions if required. The Project secured up to 950 GW·h per year sale. Another project is the María Elena plant[62] is a 400 MW thermo-solar complex in the northernChilean region ofAntofagasta employing molten salt technology.
Photovoltaics (PV) were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized applications, from thecalculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by anoff-grid rooftop PV system. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since then, as the cost of solar panels has fallen, grid-connectedsolar PV systems' capacity and production hasdoubled about every three years. Three-quarters of new generation capacity is solar,[64] with both millions of rooftop installations and gigawatt-scalephotovoltaic power stations continuing to be built.
In 2023, solar power generated 5.5% (1,631 TWh) of global electricity and over 1% ofprimary energy, adding twice as much new electricity as coal.[65][66] Along with onshorewind power,utility-scale solar is the source with the cheapestlevelised cost of electricity for new installations in most countries.[67][68] As of 2023, 33 countries generated more than a tenth of their electricity from solar, with China making up more than half of solar growth.[69]Almost half the solar power installed in 2022 wasmounted on rooftops.[70]
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the solar tower collectors, the concentrating linear Fresnel reflector, and the Stirling dish. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems, aworking fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[72] Designs need to account for the risk of adust storm,hail, or another extreme weather event that can damage the fine glass surfaces of solar power plants. Metal grills would allow a high percentage of sunlight to enter the mirrors and solar panels while also preventing most damage.
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history.[74] Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by theGreeks andChinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.[75]
The common features ofpassive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) andthermal mass.[74] When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment, they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range.Socrates' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design.[74] The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying togethersolar lighting,heating andventilation systems in an integratedsolar design package.[76] Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans, and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance.
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar energy by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have loweralbedos and higherheat capacities than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and to plant trees in the area. Using these methods, a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C at an estimated cost of US$1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings.[77]
Agriculture and horticulture
Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of the Netherlands grow vegetables, fruits and flowers.
Agriculture andhorticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields.[78][79][80] While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of theLittle Ice Age, French andEnglish farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699,Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using atracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun.[81] Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure.[46][82] More recently the technology has been embraced byvintners, who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses.[83]
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to producecucumbers year-round for the Roman emperorTiberius.[84] The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad.[85] Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today. Plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect inpolytunnels androw covers.
Development of a solar-powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. TheWorld Solar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia fromDarwin toAdelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph).[86]TheNorth American Solar Challenge and the plannedSouth African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.[87][88]
Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.[89][90]
In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England.[91] By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively.[92] In 1996,Kenichi Horie made the first solar-powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and theSun21 catamaran made the first solar-powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007.[93] There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.[94]
In 1974, the unmannedAstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979, theSolar Riser made the first flight in a solar-powered, fully controlled, man-carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 ft (12 m). In 1980, theGossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by theSolar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power.[95] Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with thePathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in theHelios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in 2001.[96] TheZephyr, developed byBAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights were envisioned by 2010.[97] From March 2015 to July 2016,Solar Impulse, anelectric aircraft, successfully circumnavigated the globe. It is a single-seat plane powered bysolar cells and capable of taking off under its own power. The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days.[98]
Asolar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands, causing an upwardbuoyancy force, much like an artificially heatedhot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high.[99]
Concentrated solar panels are getting a power boost.Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) will be testing a new concentrated solar power system – one that can help natural gas power plants reduce their fuel usage by up to 20 percent.[needs update]
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical orphotochemical.[101] A variety of fuels can be produced byartificial photosynthesis.[102] The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such asmethanol) from reduction ofcarbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative ishydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen.[103] Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 – the splitting of seawater providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system.[104] In addition, chemical energy storage is another solution to solar energy storage.[105]
Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemical processes have also been explored. One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures (2,300–2,600 °C or 4,200–4,700 °F).[106] Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive thesteam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods.[107] Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at theWeizmann Institute of Science uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decomposezinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1,200 °C (2,200 °F). This initial reaction produces pure zinc, which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen.[108]
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily orinterseasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with highspecific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-designed systems can lowerpeak demand, shift time-of-use tooff-peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.[109][110]
Phase change materials such asparaffin wax andGlauber's salt are another thermal storage medium. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful temperatures (approximately 64 °C or 147 °F). The "Dover House" (inDover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating system, in 1948.[111] Solar energy can also be stored at high temperatures usingmolten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity, and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. TheSolar Two project used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44terajoules (400,000 kWh) in its 68 m3 storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99%.[112]
Off-gridPV systems have traditionally usedrechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmissiongrid, while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls.Net metering programs give household systems credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid. This is handled by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes. If the net electricity use is below zero, the utility then rolls over the kilowatt-hour credit to the next month.[113] Other approaches involve the use of two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter. Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions, making a second meter unnecessary.
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water, with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator.[114]
Beginning with the surge incoal use, which accompanied theIndustrial Revolution, energy consumption steadily transitioned from wood and biomass tofossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal andpetroleum.[115]
The1973 oil embargo and1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world. It brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.[116][117] Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, nowNREL), Japan (NEDO), andGermany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).[118]
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s.[119] These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels.[120] As with photovoltaics,solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s, but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s, and annual growth rates have averaged 20% since 1999.[121] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.[121]
TheInternational Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces:[1]
The development of affordable, inexhaustible, and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible, and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared.[1]
In 2011, a report by theInternational Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water, and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world's energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limitingclimate change andtransitioning to renewable energy. The energy from the Sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements inenergy efficiency and imposing costs ongreenhouse gas emitters. "The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale".[122]
We have proved ... that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the Sun.
In 2021Lazard estimated thelevelized cost of new build unsubsidized utility scale solar electricity at less than 37 dollars per MWh and existing coal-fired power above that amount.[123][124] The 2021 report also said that new solar was also cheaper than new gas-fired power, but not generally existing gas power.[124]
Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electricity generation.Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current.
Floating solar or floating photovoltaics (FPV), sometimes called floatovoltaics, aresolar panels mounted on a structure that floats. The structures that hold the solar panels usually consist of plastic buoys and cables. They are then placed on a body of water. Typically, these bodies of water are reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals or remediation and tailing ponds.[125][126][127][128][129]
The systems can have advantages overphotovoltaics (PV) on land. Water surfaces may be less expensive than the cost of land, and there are fewer rules and regulations for structures built on bodies of water not used for recreation.Life cycle analysis indicates that foam-based FPV[130] have some of the shortestenergy payback times (1.3 years) and the lowestgreenhouse gas emissions to energy ratio (11 kg CO2 eq/MWh) in crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic technologies reported.[131]
Floating arrays can achieve higher efficiencies than PV panels on land because water cools the panels. The panels can have a special coating to prevent rust or corrosion.[132]
The market for thisrenewable energy technology has grown rapidly since 2016. The first 20 plants with capacities of a few dozenkWp were built between 2007 and 2013.[133] Installed power grew from 3 GW in 2020, to 13 GW in 2022,[134] surpassing a prediction of 10 GW by 2025.[135] The World Bank estimated there are 6,600 large bodies of water suitable for floating solar, with a technical capacity of over 4,000 GW if 10% of their surfaces were covered with solar panels.[134]
The U.S. has more floating solar potential than any other country in the world.[136] Bodies of water suitable for floating solar are well-distributed throughout the U.S. The southeast and southern U.S. plains states generally have reservoirs with the largest capacities.[136]
The costs for a floating system are about 10-25% higher than for ground-mounted systems.[137][138][139] According to a researcher at theNational Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), this increase is primarily due to the need for anchoring systems to secure the panels on water.[140]
Aheat pump is a device that provides heat energy from a source of heat to a destination called a "heat sink". Heat pumps are designed to movethermal energy opposite to the direction of spontaneous heat flow by absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a warmer one. A solar-assisted heat pump represents the integration of a heat pump andthermal solar panels in a single integrated system. Typically these two technologies are used separately (or only placing them in parallel) to producehot water.[141] In this system the solar thermal panel performs the function of the low temperature heat source and the heat produced is used to feed the heat pump's evaporator.[142] The goal of this system is to get highCOP and then produce energy in a moreefficient and less expensive way.
It is possible to use any type of solar thermal panel (sheet and tubes, roll-bond, heat pipe, thermal plates) orhybrid (mono/polycrystalline,thin film) in combination with the heat pump. The use of a hybrid panel is preferable because it allows covering a part of the electricity demand of the heat pump and reduces the power consumption and consequently thevariable costs of the system.
Currently, flying manned electric aircraft are mostly experimental demonstrators, though many smallunmanned aerial vehicles are powered by batteries.Electrically powered model aircraft have been flown since the 1970s, with one report in 1957.[144][145] The first man-carrying electrically powered flights were made in 1973.[146] Between 2015 and 2016, a manned, solar-powered plane,Solar Impulse 2, completed a circumnavigation of the Earth.[147]
^"Renewable Energy Sources"(PDF). Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory. p. 12. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 19 November 2012. Retrieved6 December 2012.
^Bond, Kingsmill (April 2021)."The sky's the limit"(PDF).epbr. Carbon Tracker Initiative. p. 6.Archived(PDF) from the original on April 30, 2021. RetrievedOctober 22, 2021.
^Shilton A.N.; Powell N.; Mara D.D.; Craggs R. (2008). "Solar-powered aeration and disinfection, anaerobic co-digestion, biological CO(2) scrubbing and biofuel production: the energy and carbon management opportunities of waste stabilization ponds".Water Sci. Technol.58 (1):253–58.Bibcode:2008WSTec..58..253S.doi:10.2166/wst.2008.666.PMID18653962.
^Tadesse I.; Isoaho S.A.; Green F.B.; Puhakka J.A. (2003). "Removal of organics and nutrients from tannery effluent by advanced integrated Wastewater Pond Systems technology".Water Sci. Technol.48 (2):307–14.Bibcode:2003WSTec..48..307T.doi:10.2166/wst.2003.0135.PMID14510225.
^Mayville, Pierce; Patil, Neha Vijay; Pearce, Joshua M. (December 2020). "Distributed manufacturing of after market flexible floating photovoltaic modules".Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments.42: 100830.Bibcode:2020SETA...4200830M.doi:10.1016/j.seta.2020.100830.
^Hayibo, Koami Soulemane; Mayville, Pierce; Pearce, Joshua M. (2022). "The greenest solar power? Life cycle assessment of foam-based flexible floatovoltaics".Sustainable Energy & Fuels.6 (5):1398–1413.doi:10.1039/D1SE01823J.
^Trapani, Kim; Redón Santafé, Miguel (2015). "A review of floating photovoltaic installations: 2007-2013".Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications.23 (4):524–532.doi:10.1002/pip.2466.hdl:10251/80704.
^Noth, André (July 2008)."History of Solar Flight"(PDF).Autonomous Systems Lab. Zürich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. p. 3. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 1 February 2012. Retrieved8 July 2010.Günter Rochelt was the designer and builder of Solair I, a 16 m wingspan solar airplane ... 21st of August 1983 he flew in Solair I, mostly on solar energy and also thermals, during 5 hours 41 minutes.
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