Thesnow leopard (Panthera uncia) is aspecies of large cat in the genusPanthera of thefamilyFelidae. The species is native to the mountain ranges ofCentral andSouth Asia. It is listed asVulnerable on theIUCN Red List because the global population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and is expected to decline about 10% by 2040. It is mainly threatened bypoaching andhabitat destruction following infrastructural developments. It inhabitsalpine andsubalpine zones at elevations of 3,000–4,500 m (9,800–14,800 ft), ranging from easternAfghanistan, theHimalayas and theTibetan Plateau to southernSiberia,Mongolia andwestern China. In the northern part of its range, it also lives at lower elevations.
Taxonomically, the snow leopard was long classified in themonotypic genusUncia. Sincephylogenetic studies revealed the relationships amongPanthera species, it has since been considered a member of thatgenus. Two subspecies were described based onmorphological differences, butgenetic differences between the two have not yet been confirmed. It is therefore regarded as amonotypic species. The species is widely depicted inKyrgyz culture.
Naming and etymology
Illustration of an 'Ounce' (1658)
TheOld French wordonce, which was intended to be used for theEurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), is where theLatin nameuncia and the English word ounce both originate.Once is believed to have originated from a previous form of the wordlynx through a process known asfalse splitting. The wordonce was originally considered to be pronounced asl'once, wherel' stands for theelided form of the wordla ('the') in French.Once was then understood to be the name of the animal.[2]The wordpanther derives from theclassical Latinpanthēra, itself from theancient Greek πάνθηρpánthēr, which was used for spotted cats.[3]
Uncia uncia was used byReginald Innes Pocock in 1930 when he reviewed skins and skulls ofPanthera species from Asia. He also described morphological differences between snow leopard and leopard skins.[8]Panthera baikalensis-romanii proposed by a Russian scientist in 2000 was a dark brown snow leopard skin from thePetrovsk-Zabaykalsky District in southernTransbaikal.[9]
Until spring 2017, there was no evidence available for the recognition ofsubspecies. Results of aphylogeographic analysis indicate that three subspecies should be recognised:[15]
This view has been both contested and supported by different researchers.[16][17][18][19]
Two possible European paleosubspecies have been named in the 2020s,Panthera uncia pyrenaica from France andPanthera uncia lusitana from Portugal, but the subspecific validity of the former is uncertain.[20]
Evolution
Two cladograms proposed forPanthera. The upper cladogram is based on two studies published in 2006 and 2009,[11][21] the lower one is based on studies published in 2010 and 2011.[12][22]
Based on the phylogenetic analysis of theDNA sequence sampled across the livingFelidae, the snow leopard forms asister group with thetiger (P. tigris). Thegenetic divergence time of this group is estimated at4.62 to 1.82 million years ago.[11][21] The snow leopard and the tiger probably diverged between3.7 to 2.7 million years ago.[12]Panthera originates most likely in northern Central Asia.Panthera blytheaeexcavated in western Tibet'sNgari Prefecture has been initially described the oldest knownPanthera species and exhibits skull characteristics similar to the snow leopard,[23] though its taxonomic placement has been disputed by other researchers who suggest that the species likely belongs to a different genus.[24][25] Themitochondrial genomes of the snow leopard, the leopard and thelion (P. leo) are more similar to each other than theirnuclear genomes, indicating that their ancestorshybridised at some point in theirevolution.[26]
The earliest known definitive record of the modern snow leopard is dated to the Late Pleistocene based on a specimen discovered from the Niuyan Cave of China. AMiddle Pleistocene specimen from theZhoukoudian Peking Man Site which is similar to the modern snow leopard has been referred to asP. aff.uncia.[20] Putative fossils of the snow leopard found in the Pabbi Hills of Pakistan were dated to theEarly Pleistocene,[27] but the fossils might instead represent aleopard or belong to the genusPuma.[28]
It has also been suggested that the snow leopard had Europeanpaleosubspecies during the Pleistocene epoch.Panthera uncia pyrenaica was described in 2022 based onfossil material found in France that was dated to the earlyMiddle Pleistocene around0.57 to 0.53 million years ago.[28]Panthera uncia lusitana was described in 2025 based on fossil material discovered from Late Pleistocene strata in Portugal, and the describers ofP. u. lusitana assignedP. u. pyrenaica outside the modern snow leopard asP. pyrenaica due to the lack of similar traits, though it might represent a basal related species.[20]
Characteristics
Showing canines
Thickly furred tail
The snow leopard's fur is whitish to grey with black spots on the head and neck, with largerrosettes on the back,flanks and bushy tail. Itsmuzzle is short, its forehead domed, and itsnasal cavities are large. The fur is thick with hairs measuring 5 to 12 cm (2.0 to 4.7 in) in length, and its underbelly is whitish. They are stocky, short-legged, and slightly smaller than other cats of the genusPanthera, reaching a shoulder height of 56 cm (22 in), and ranging in head to body size from 75 to 150 cm (30 to 59 in). Its tail is 80 to 105 cm (31 to 41 in) long.[29] Males average 45 to 55 kg (99 to 121 lb), and females 35 to 40 kg (77 to 88 lb).[30] Occasionally, large males reaching 75 kg (165 lb) have been recorded, and small females under 25 kg (55 lb).[31]Itscanine teeth are 28.6 mm (1.13 in) long and are more slender than those of the otherPanthera species.[32]
The snow leopard shows several adaptations for living in cold, mountainous environments. Its small rounded ears help to minimize heat loss, and its broad paws effectively distribute the body weight for walking on snow. Fur on the undersides of the paws enhances its grip on steep and unstable surfaces, and helps to minimize heat loss. Its long and flexible tail helps the cat to balance in rocky terrain. The tail is very thick due to fat storage, and is covered in a thick layer of fur, which allows the cat to use it like a blanket to protect its face when asleep.[33]
The snow leopard differs from the otherPanthera species by a shorter muzzle, an elevatedforehead, a vertical chin and a less developed posterior process of the lowerjaw.[8] Despite its partlyossifiedhyoid bone, a snow leopard cannotroar, as its 9 mm (0.35 in) shortvocal folds provide little resistance to airflow.[34][35]Its nasal openings are large in relation to the length of itsskull and width of itspalate; thanks to their size the volume of air inhaled with each breath is optimised, and the cold dry air becomes warmer.[36] It is not especially adapted tohigh-altitude hypoxia.[37]
Potential snow leopard habitat in the Indian Himalayas is estimated at less than 90,000 km2 (35,000 sq mi) inJammu and Kashmir,Ladakh,Uttarakhand,Himachal Pradesh,Sikkim andArunachal Pradesh, of which about 34,000 km2 (13,000 sq mi) is considered good habitat, and 14.4% is protected. In the beginning of the 1990s, the Indian snow leopard population was estimated at 200–600 individuals living across about 25 protected areas.[38] The Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI) Programme counted the number of snow leopards between 2019 and 2023 and found their number to be 718, with 477 inLadakh, 124 inUttarakhand, 51 in Himachal Pradesh, 36 in Arunachal Pradesh, 21 in Sikkim, and nine in Jammu and Kashmir.[40]
In summer, the snow leopard usually lives above thetree line onalpine meadows and in rocky regions at elevations of 2,700 to 6,000 m (8,900 to 19,700 ft). In winter, they descend to elevations around 1,200 to 2,000 m (3,900 to 6,600 ft). They prefer rocky, broken terrain, and can move in 85 cm (33 in) deep snow, but prefers to use existing trails made by other animals.[31]
The snow leopard's vocalizations include meowing, grunting,prusten and moaning. They can purr when exhaling.[29]
It issolitary and mostly active at dawn till early morning, and again in afternoons and early evenings. They mostly rest near cliffs and ridges that provide vantage points and shade. In Nepal'sShey Phoksundo National Park, the home ranges of five adultradio-collared snow leopards largely overlapped, though they rarely met. Their individual home ranges ranged from 12 to 39 km2 (4.6 to 15.1 sq mi). Males moved between 0.5 and 5.45 km (0.31 and 3.39 mi) per day, and females between 0.2 and 2.25 km (0.12 and 1.40 mi), measured in straight lines between survey points. Since they often zigzagged in the precipitous terrain, they actually moved up to 7 km (4.3 mi) in a single night.[42]Up to 10 individuals inhabit an area of 100 km2 (39 sq mi); in habitats with sparse prey, an area of 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) usually supports only five individuals.[43]
A study in theGobi Desert from 2008 to 2014 revealed that adult males used a mean home range of 144–270 km2 (56–104 sq mi), while adult females ranged in areas of 83–165 km2 (32–64 sq mi). Their home ranges overlapped less than 20%. These results indicate that about 40% of the 170 protected areas in their range countries are smaller than the home range of a single male snow leopard.[44]
Snow leopards leavescent marks to indicate their territories and common travel routes. They scrape the ground with the hind feet before depositingurine orfeces, but alsospray urine onto rocks.[31] Their urine contains many characteristic low molecular weight compounds with diverse functional groups includingpentanol,hexanol,heptanol,3-octanone,nonanal andindole, which possibly play a role in chemical communication.[45]
The snow leopard is acarnivore and activelyhunts itsprey. Its preferred wild prey species areHimalayan blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur),Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus),argali (Ovis ammon),markhor (Capra falconeri) andwild goat (C. aegagrus). It also preys on domestic livestock.[46][47] It prefers prey ranging in weight from 36 to 76 kg (79 to 168 lb), but also hunts smaller mammals such asHimalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana),pika andvole species. Its diet depends on prey availability and varies across its range and season. In the Himalayas, it preys mostly on Himalayan blue sheep,Siberian ibex (C. sibirica),white-bellied musk deer (Moschus leucogaster) andwild boar (Sus scrofa). In theKarakoram,Tian Shan, Altai and Mongolia's Tost Mountains, its main prey consists of Siberian ibex,Thorold's deer (Cervus albirostris),Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) and argali.[48][49] Snow leopard feces collected in northern Pakistan also contained remains ofrhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta),masked palm civet (Paguma larvata),Cape hare (Lepus capensis),house mouse (Mus musculus),Kashmir field mouse (Apodemus rusiges),grey dwarf hamster (Cricetulus migratorius) andTurkestan rat (Rattus pyctoris).[50] In 2017, a snow leopard was photographed carrying a freshly killedwoolly flying squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus) nearGangotri National Park.[51] In Mongolia,domestic sheep comprises less than 20% of its diet, although wild prey has been reduced and interactions with people are common.[49] It is capable of killing most ungulates in its habitat, with the probable exception of the adult malewild yak. It also eats grass and twigs.[31]
The snow leopard actively pursues prey down steep mountainsides, using the momentum of its initial leap to chase animals for up to 300 m (980 ft). Then it drags the prey to a safe location and consumes all edible parts of the carcass. It can survive on a single Himalayan blue sheep for two weeks before hunting again, and one adult individual apparently needs 20–30 adult blue sheep per year.[1][31] Snow leopards have been recorded to hunt successfully in pairs, especially mating pairs.[52]
The snow leopard is easily driven away from livestock and readily abandons kills, often without defending itself.[31] Only two attacks on humans have been reported, both nearAlmaty in Kazakhstan, and neither were fatal. In 1940, arabid snow leopard attacked two men; and an old, toothlessemaciated individual attacked a person passing by.[53][54]
Snow leopards becomesexually mature at two to three years, and normally live for 15–18 years in the wild. In captivity they can live for up to 25 years.Oestrus typically lasts five to eight days, and males tend not to seek out another partner after mating, probably because the short mating season does not allow sufficient time. Paired snow leopards mate inthe usual felid posture, from 12 to 36 times a day. They are unusual among large cats in that they have a well-defined birth peak. They usuallymate in late winter, marked by a noticeable increase in marking and calling. Females have agestation period of 90–100 days, and the cubs are born between April and June.[31]Alitter usually consists of two to three cubs, in exceptional cases there can be up to seven.[53]
The female gives birth in a rocky den or crevice lined with fur shed from her underside. The cubs are born blind and helpless, although already with a thick coat of fur, and weigh 320 to 567 g (11.3 to 20.0 oz). Their eyes open at around seven days, and the cubs can walk at five weeks and are fully weaned by 10 weeks. The cubs leave the den when they are around two to four months of age.[31] Three radio-collared snow leopards in Mongolia's Tost Mountains gave birth between late April and late June. Two female cubs started to part from their mothers at the age of 20 to 21 months, but reunited with them several times for a few days over a period of 4–7 months. One male cub separated from his mother at the age of about 22 months, but stayed in her vicinity for a month and moved out of his natal range at 23 months of age.[55]
Major threats to the population include poaching and illegal trade of its skins and body parts.[1] Between 1999 and 2002, three live snow leopard cubs and 16 skins wereconfiscated, 330traps were destroyed and 110 poachers were arrested in Kyrgyzstan.Undercover operations in the country revealed an illegal trade network with links to Russia and China via Kazakhstan. The major skin trade center in the region is the city ofKashgar inXinjiang.[57] In Tibet and Mongolia, skins are used for traditional dresses, and meat intraditional Tibetan medicine to curekidney problems; bones are used intraditional Chinese andMongolian medicine for treatingrheumatism, injuries and pain of human bones andtendons. Between 1996 and 2002, 37 skins were found in wildlife markets and tourist shops in Mongolia.[58] Between 2003 and 2016, 710 skins were traded, of which 288 skins were confiscated. In China, an estimated 103 to 236 animals are poached every year, in Mongolia between 34 and 53, in Pakistan between 23 and 53, in India from 21 to 45, and in Tajikistan 20 to 25. In 2016, a survey of Chinese websites revealed 15 advertisements for 44 snow leopard products; the dealers offered skins, canine teeth, claws and a tongue.[59] In September 2014, nine snow leopard skins were found during a market survey in Afghanistan.[60]
Greenhouse gas emissions will likely cause a shift of thetreeline in the Himalayas and a shrinking of thealpine zone, which may reduce snow leopard habitat by an estimated 30%.[61]
Where snow leopards prey on domesticlivestock, they are subject tohuman–wildlife conflict.[1]The loss of natural prey due to overgrazing by livestock, poaching, and defense of livestock are the major drivers for the ever decreasing snow leopard population.[31] Livestock also cause habitat degradation, which, alongside the increasing use of forests for fuel, reduces snow leopard habitat.[62]
The snow leopard is listed inCITES Appendix I.[30] They have been listed as threatened with extinction in Schedule I of theConvention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals since 1985.[58]Hunting snow leopards has been prohibited in Kyrgyzstan since the 1950s.[57] In India, the snow leopard is granted the highest level of protection under theWildlife Protection Act, 1972, and hunting is sentenced withimprisonment of 3–7 years.[75] In Nepal, they have been legally protected since 1973, with penalties of 5–15 years in prison and afine for poaching and trading them.[76]Since 1978, they have been listed in theSoviet Union’s Red Book and is still inscribed today in theRed Data Book of the Russian Federation as threatened with extinction. Hunting snow leopards is only permitted for the purposes of conservation and monitoring, and to eliminate a threat to the life of humans and livestock.Smuggling of snow leopard body parts is punished with imprisonment and afine.[77]Hunting snow leopards has been prohibited in Afghanistan since 1986.[60]In China, they have been protected by law since 1989; hunting and trading snow leopards or their body parts constitute acriminal offence that is punishable by theconfiscation of property, a fine and asentence of at least 10 years in prison.[78]They have been protected in Bhutan since 1995.[79]
At the end of 2020, 35 cameras were installed on the outskirts of Almaty, Kazakhstan in hopes to catch footage of snow leopards. In November 2021, it was announced by the Russian World Wildlife Fund (WWF) that snow leopards were spotted 65 times on these cameras in the Trans-Ili Alatau mountains since the cameras were installed.[80][44][81][82][83]
TheMoscow Zoo exhibited the first captive snow leopard in 1872 that had been caught inTurkestan. In Kyrgyzstan, 420 live snow leopards were caught between 1936 and 1988 and exported to zoos around the world. TheBronx Zoo housed a live snow leopard in 1903; this was the first ever specimen exhibited in a North American zoo.[85] The firstcaptive bred snow leopard cubs were born in the 1990s in theBeijing Zoo.[57]The Snow LeopardSpecies Survival Plan was initiated in 1984; by 1986,American zoos held 234 individuals.[86][87]
Cultural significance
Snow leopard on the reverse of the old 10,000-Kazakhstani tenge banknoteEmblem ofTatarstan, depicting the Aq Bars, a mythical winged Snow leopard
The 1978 bookThe Snow Leopard is an account byPeter Matthiessen about his two-month journey through theDolpo region of the Nepal Himalayas in search of the snow leopard.[90]
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