 The five primary deities ofSmarta in a Ganesha-centric panchayatana: Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Adi Shakti (top right), Vishnu (bottom left), and Surya (bottom right) | |
| Founder | |
|---|---|
| Adi Shankara[1] | |
| Religions | |
| Hinduism | |
| Scriptures | |
| Vedas • Smritisastras | |
| Languages | |
| Sanskrit,Old Tamil,Old Kannada | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Babburkamme,Iyer,Deshastha,Hoysala Karnataka Brahmins, etc. |
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TheSmarta tradition (Sanskrit:स्मार्त,IAST:Smārta), also calledSmartism, is a movement inHinduism that developed and expanded with thePuranas genre of literature.[2] It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namelyUttara Mīmāṃsā,Advaita,Yoga, andtheism.[3] The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism,[3] and is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal –Ganesha,Shiva,Shakti,Vishnu andSurya.[4] The Smarta tradition contrasted with the olderShrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites.[2][5] There has been a considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namelyShaivism,Brahmanism,Vaishnavism, andShaktism.[6][7][8]
The Smarta tradition developed during (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.[9][10] The Smarta tradition is aligned withAdvaita Vedanta, and regardsAdi Shankara as its founder or reformer.[11] Shankara championed the thesis that ultimate reality is impersonal andNirguna (attributeless) and any symbolic god serves the same equivalent purpose.[12] Inspired by this belief, the Smarta tradition followers, along with the five Hindu gods, include a sixth impersonal god in their practice.[12] The tradition has been called by William Jackson as "advaitin,monistic in its outlook".[13]
The term Smarta also refers toBrahmins who specialise in theSmriti corpus of texts named the Grihya Sutras, in contrast to Shrauta Sutras.[14][15][16][17] Smarta Brahmins, with their focus on the Smriti corpus, are contrasted fromSrauta Brahmins, who specialise in theŚruti Corpus, that is, rituals and ceremonies that follow theVedas.[18]
Smārta (स्मार्त) is an adjective derived fromSmriti (Sanskrit: स्मृति,Smrti,IPA:[s̪mr̩.t̪i]).[19] The smriti are a specific body of Hindu texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down but constantly revised, in contrast toSrutis (The Vedic Literature) considered authorless, that were transmitted verbally across the generations and fixed.[20][21]
Smarta has several meanings:[19][22]
In Smarta tradition context, the termSmarta means "Follower Of Smriti".[23] Smarta is especially associated with a "Sect Founded ByShankaracharya", according to Monier Williams.[22] Some families in South India follow Srauta strictly and do not accept anyVedanta systems. They even have a custom of the sacred thread being worn by women.
BothAlf Hiltebeitel and Gavin Flood locate the origins of the Smarta Tradition in the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism, particularly with thenondualist (Advaita) interpretation of Vedanta,[24] when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.[9][10]
Hiltebeitel situates the origins of the Smarta tradition in the ongoing interaction between the Vedic-Brahmanic tradition and non-Vedic traditions. According to him, a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of theGuptas (c. 320–467), which he calls the "Hindus synthesis", "Brahmanic synthesis", or "orthodox synthesis".[25] It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:
The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].[26]
Thesmriti texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE[note 1] proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and "nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas."[27] The Smriti texts interpret the Vedas in a number of ways, which gave rise to sixdarsanas (orthodox schools) ofHindu philosophy. Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedicsruti tradition and are sometimes calledsmarta schools in the sense that they developsmarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based, likesmriti, directly onsruti."[28] They emphasize the Vedas with reason and otherpramanas, in contrast toHaituka schools which emphasizehetu (cause, reason) independent of the Vedas while accepting the authority of the Vedas.[29][30] Of the two Smarta traditions, Mimamsa focused on Vedic ritual traditions, while Vedanta focussed onUpanishadic knowledge tradition.[29]
Around the start of the common era, and thereafter, a syncretism ofHaituka schools (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya and Yoga), theSmarta schools (Mimamsa, Vedanta) with ancient theistic ideas (bhakti, tantric) gave rise to a growth in traditions such asShaivism,Vaishnavism andShaktism.[31] The revived Smarta tradition attempted to integrate varied and conflicting devotional practices, with its ideas of nondual experience ofAtman (self, soul) asBrahman.[32] The rapprochement included the practice ofpancayatana-puja (five shrine worship), wherein a Hindu could focus on anysaguna deity of choice (istadevata) such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Surya and Ganesha as an interim step towards realizing thenirguna Brahman.[32] The growth of this Smarta Tradition began in the Gupta period (4th–5th century CE), and likely was dominated byDvija classes, in particular theBrahmins,[33] of the early medieval Indian society.[34] This Smarta tradition competed with other major traditions of Hinduism such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.[34] The ideas of Smarta were historically influential, creative with concepts such as ofHarihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu deity) andArdhanarishvara (half woman, half man deity), and many of the major scholars of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, and Bhakti movement came out of the Smarta tradition.[34]
According to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign ofbhakti."[35] It is theBhagavadgita that seals this achievement. The result is a universal achievement that may be calledsmarta. It views Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in their functions but ontologically identical".[35]
According to Flood, the Smarta tradition originated with the development of thePuranas.[2] The Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults. Flood connects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centring upon a particular deity in theGupta era.[36][note 2]
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states". The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms.[38] With the breakdown of the Gupta empire, gifts of virgin waste-land were heaped on brahmanas,[39][40] to ensure profitable agrarian exploitation of land owned by the kings, but also to provide status to the new ruling classes. Brahmanas spread further over India, interacting with local clans with different religions and ideologies.[39]
The early medieval Puranas were composed to disseminate religious mainstream ideology among the pre-literatetribal societies undergoingacculturation.[41] The Brahmanas used the Puranas to incorporate those clans into the agrarian society and its accompanying religion and ideology.[39] Local chiefs and peasants were absorbed into the castesystem, which was used to keep "control over the newkshatriyas andshudras".[42]
The Brahmanism of theDharmashastras and thesmritis underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of Puranic Hinduism,[41] "which like a colossus striding across the religious firmament soon came to overshadow all existing religions". Puranic Hinduism was a "multiplex belief-system which grew and expanded as it absorbed and synthesized polaristic ideas and cultic traditions". It was distinguished from its Vedic Smarta roots by its popular base, its theological and sectarian pluralism, its Tantric veneer, and the central place ofbhakti.[43]
Many local religions and traditions were assimilated into puranic Hinduism. Vishnu and Shiva emerged as the main deities, together with Sakti/Deva, subsuming local cults, popular totem symbols and creation myths. Rama and Krsna became the focus of a strongbhakti tradition, which found expression particularly in theBhagavata Purana. The Krsna tradition subsumed numerous Naga, yaksa, and hill and tree based cults. Siva absorbed local cults by the suffixing ofIsa orIsvara to the name of the local deity, for example Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, and Chandesvara.[44]
Traditionally, Adi Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher and reformer of the Smarta tradition.[21][45][note 4] According to Hiltebeitel, Adi Shankara established thenondualist interpretation of theUpanishads as the touchstone of a revivedsmarta tradition:
Practically, Adi Shankara Acharya fostered a rapprochement between Advaita andsmarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend thevarnasramadharma theory as defining the path ofkarman, but had developed the practice ofpancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one'sistadevata ("deity of choice").[9]
TheSringeri Sharada monastery founded by Adi Shankara in Karnataka is still the centre of the Smarta sect.[21][45]
Medieval era scholars such as Vedanta Desika and Vallabhacharya recognized Smarta as competing with Vaishnavism and other traditions. According to Jeffrey Timm, for example, in verse 10 of theTattvarthadipanibandha,Vallabhacharya states that, "Mutually contradictory conclusions are non-contradictory when they are considered from their respective contexts, like Vaishnava, Smarta, etc."[59]
According to Murray Milner Jr., a professor of Sociology, the Smarta tradition refers to "Hindus who tend toward Brahmanical orthodoxy in both thought and behavior". Smartas are usually committed to a "relatively unified Hinduism" and they reject extreme forms of sectarian isolationism, reminiscent of the European discourse about the church and Christian sects.[3] The tradition, states Milner, has roots that emerged sometime between 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE, likely in response to the growth of Jainism and Buddhism.[3] It reflected a Hindu synthesis of four philosophical strands: Mimamsa, Advaita, Yoga and theism.[3]
Smarta tradition emerged initially as a synthesis movement to unify Hinduism into a nonsectarian form based on the Vedic heritage. It acceptedvarnasrama-dharma, states Bruce Sullivan, which reflected an acceptance ofVarna (caste/class) andashrama (four stages of human life) as a form of social and religious duty. In the later second half of the 1st millennium,Adi Shankara reformed and brought ideas to the movement in the form of theAdvaita Vedanta philosophy.[60] According to Upinder Singh, the Smarta tradition's religious practice emerged as a transformation ofBrahmanism and can be described asHinduism.[61] Smarta as a tradition emphasized all gods as equal and different ways of perceiving the all-pervasive metaphysical impersonalBrahman.[62]
In recent times bhakti cults have increasingly become popular with the smartas.[63]
Vaitheespara notes the adherence of the Smarta Brahmans to "the pan-Indian Sanskrit-brahmanical tradition":
The emerging pan-Indian nationalism was clearly founded upon a number of cultural movements that, for the most part, reimagined an 'Aryo-centric', neo-brahmanical vision of India, which provided the 'ideology' for this hegemonic project. In the Tamil region, such a vision and ideology was closely associated with the Tamil Brahmans and, especially, the Smarta Brahmans who were considered the strongest adherents of the pan-Indian Sanskrit-Brahmanical tradition.[64]
The Smartas evolved a kind of worship which is known asPanchayatana puja. In this Puja, one or more of the five Hindu Deities (Surya,Shiva,Vishnu,Ganesha andAdi Shakti) are the objects of veneration.[32][21] The five symbols of the major Gods are placed on a round open metal dish called Panchayatana, the symbol of the deity preferred by the worshiper being in the center. A similar arrangement is also seen in the medieval temples, in which the central shrine housing the principal Deity is surrounded by four smaller shrines containing the figures of the other deities.[65] Some of the Smartas of South India add a sixth godKartikeya (seeShanmata). According toBasham, any upper-class Hindus still prefer the way of the Smartas to Saiva and Vaisnava forms of worship.[66]
Panchayatana puja is a practice that became popular in medieval India,[67] and has been attributed to Adi Shankara.[68] However, archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from theGupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers fromAjmer) has been dated to belong to theKushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[69] The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.[69] According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE embed thepancayatana architecture very commonly, fromOdisha toKarnataka toKashmir; and the temples containing fusion deities such asHarihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) are set in Panchayatana worship style.[70]
According to Smartism, supreme reality, Brahman, transcends all of the various forms of personal deity.[71][note 5] The Smartas follow an orthodox Hindu philosophy, which means they accept the Vedas, and the ontological concepts of Atman and Brahman therein.
The Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are thesaguna Brahman – the Brahman with attributes, andnirguna Brahman – the Brahman without attributes.[74] Thenirguna Brahman is the unchanging Reality, however, thesaguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing thisnirguna Brahman.[75] The concept of thesaguna Brahman is considered in this tradition to be a useful symbolism and means for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the saguna concept is abandoned by the fully enlightened once he or she realizes the identity of their own soul with that of thenirguna Brahman.[75] A Smarta may choose anysaguna deity (istadevata) such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya, Ganesha or any other, and this is viewed in Smarta Tradition as an interim step towards realizing thenirguna Brahman and its equivalence to one's own Atman.[32]
Smartas follow theHindu scriptures. These include theshruti (Vedas),[76][77][78][20] but most markedly thesmriti literature, which incorporated shramanic and Buddhist influences[79] of the period from about 200 BCE to about 300 CE[79][80] and the emergingbhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold.[81][79] According to Larson,
[M]ost of the basic ideas and practices of classical Hinduism derive from the newsmriti literature. In other words, Hindus for the most part pay little more than lip service to the Vedic scriptures. The most important dimensions of being Hindu derive, instead, from thesmriti texts. The point can also be made in terms of the emerging social reality. Whereas theshruti is taken seriously by a small number of Brahmins, thesmriti are taken seriously by the overwhelming majority of Hindus, regardless of class or caste identity.[79]
The identity ofAtman andBrahman, and their unchanging, eternal nature, are the basic truths in this tradition. The emphasis in Vedic texts here is thejnana-kanda (knowledge, philosophical speculations) in the Upanishadic part of the Vedas, not itskarma-kanda (ritual injunctions).[82] Along with the Upanishads, theBhagavad Gita andBrahma Sutras are the central texts of the Advaita Vedanta tradition, providing the truths about the identity ofAtman andBrahman and their changeless nature.[82][83]
The Brahmasutra is considered as theNyaya Prasthana (canonical base for reasoning).[86] The Bhagavad Gita is considered as theSmriti Prasthana.[86] The text relies on otherSmritis, such as theVedangas,Itihasa,Dharmasastras,Puranas and others.[2] Some of thissmriti literature incorporated shramanic and Buddhist influences[79] of the period from about 200 BC to about AD 300[79][80] and the emergingbhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold.[81][79]
The Smarta Tradition includes temples and monasteries. More Smarta temples are found in West and South India, than in North India.[87]
Adi Shankara is one of the leading scholars of the Smarta Tradition, and he founded some of the most famous monasteries in Hinduism.[88] These have hosted theDaśanāmi Sampradāya under four Maṭhas, atDwarka in the West,Jagannatha Puri in the East,Sringeri in the South andBadrinath in the North.[88][89]> He himself Ascended the Savagna peetam in Kanchi, known as Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam. Each math was headed by one of his disciples, called Shankaracharya, who each independently continued the Advaita Vedanta Sampradaya.[88] The ten Shankara-linked Advaita monastic orders are distributed as follows: Indra Saraswati at Kanchi, Bharati, Puri and Saraswati at Sringeri, Aranya and Vana at Puri, Tirtha and Ashrama at Dwarka, and Giri, Parvata and Sagara at Badrinath.[90]
The mathas which Shankara built exist until today, and continue the teachings and influence of Shankara.[91][92]
The table below gives an overview of the four largest Advaita Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.[89][web 1] However, evidence suggests that Shankara established moremathas locally for Vedanta studies and its propagation, states Hartmut Scharfe, such as the "four mathas in the city ofTrichur alone, that were headed by Trotaka, Sureshvara, Hastamalaka and Padmapada".[93]
TheSringeri Sharada monastery founded byAdi Shankara in Karnataka is the centre of the Smarta sect for its disciples.[21][45] Puri, Kanchi and Dwaraka Peetams have records of lineage of Sankaracharya since 5th centruty BC.[94][95]
| Shishya (lineage) | Direction | Maṭha | State | Mahāvākya | Veda | Sampradaya |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Padmapāda | East | Govardhana Pīṭhaṃ | Odisha | Prajñānam brahma (Consciousness is Brahman) | Rig Veda | Bhogavala |
| Sureśvara | South | Sringeri Śārada Pīṭhaṃ | Karnataka | Aham brahmāsmi (I am Brahman) | Yajur Veda | Bhūrivala |
| Hastāmalakācārya | West | Dvāraka Pīṭhaṃ | Gujarat | Tattvamasi (That thou art) | Sama Veda | Kitavala |
| Toṭakācārya | North | Jyotirmaṭha Pīṭhaṃ | Uttarakhand | Ayamātmā brahma (This Atman is Brahman) | Atharva Veda | Nandavala |
Other Advaita Vedanta mathas following Smarta Tradition include:
The adjectiveSmārta is also used to classify aBrahmin who adheres to theSmriti corpus of texts.[17][16]
Smarta Brahmins specialize in the Smriti corpus of texts,[96] are differentiated fromSrauta Brahmins who specialize in theSruti corpus of texts such as theBrahmanas layer embedded inside theVedas.[18] Smarta Brahmins are also differentiated from Brahmins who specialize in theAgamic (Tantra) literature such as theAdi Shaiva Brahmins,Sri Vaishnava Brahmins and ShaivaKashmiri Pandits.[7][97] However, these identities are not clearly defined, and active groups such as "Agamic Smarta Saiva Brahmins" have thrived.[98]
In a more general sense, all Brahmins who do not come from small communities of orthodox Vedic sects are considered Smarta Brahmins. Many orthodox Vedic sects have also turned to temple worship and management, which is considered a Smarta and Agamic tradition. Sri Vaishnava Brahmins sought to combine the Smarta tradition, Alvar Bhakti, and the Pancharatra traditions. Kashmiri Pandits combine Smarta and Agamic tradition.[citation needed]
Visvakarmas are artisans found in South India, such as in the state ofKarnataka. They are known for their traditional expertise and skills as blacksmiths, carpenters, coppersmiths, sculptors, and goldsmiths. Smarta Visvakarmas are vegetarian artisans who follow the Smarta tradition. They contrast with Vaishnava Visvakarmas who follow theVaishnavism tradition of Hinduism and some of whom may consume non-vegetarian food.[99][100] The remarriage of widows is a tradition found among the Smarta Visvakarmas, but has been atypical among Vaishnava Visvakarma.[100]
According to Brouwer, examples of Smarta Visvakarmas include Niligundapanta (traditionally blacksmiths and carpenters), Konnurpanta (all five artisan trades) and Madipattar (goldsmiths).[99] The Smarta & Vaishnava Visvakarmas claim to be Brahmins but were never considered to be Brahmins by the mainstream smarta Brahmins of Karnataka and other castes.[99]
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Vaitheespara notes the adherence of the Smarta Brahmans to "the pan-Indian Sanskrit-brahmanical tradition" and their influence on pan-Indian nationalism:
The emerging pan-Indian nationalism was clearly founded upon a number of cultural movements that, for the most part, reimagined an 'Aryo-centric', neo-brahmanical vision of India, which provided the 'ideology' for this hegemonic project. In the Tamil region, such a vision and ideology was closely associated with the Tamil Brahmans and, especially, the Smarta Brahmans who were considered the strongest adherents of the pan-Indian Sanskrit-Brahmanical tradition.[64]
Prominent Smarta teachers
SectsExamples of sects that follow the Smarta tradition and Advaita Vedanta, with Shankara as the primary reformer:
Web sources
