Slavonia Slavonija | |
|---|---|
 Flag  Coat of arms | |
 | |
| Country |  Croatia |
| Largest city | Osijek |
| Area | |
• Total | 12,556 km2 (4,848 sq mi) |
| Population (2021)3 | |
• Total | 665,858 |
| • Density | 53.031/km2 (137.35/sq mi) |
| ^ Slavonia is not designated as an official subdivision ofCroatia; it is ahistorical region.[1] The flag and arms below are also unofficial/historical; none are legally defined at present. ^ The map represents modern-day perception: historical boundaries of Slavonia varied over centuries. ^ The figures are an approximation based on statistical data for the five easternmostCroatian counties (Brod-Posavina,Osijek-Baranja,Požega-Slavonia,Virovitica-Podravina,Vukovar-Srijem). | |
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Slavonia (/sləˈvoʊniə/;Croatian:Slavonija[a]) is, withDalmatia,Croatia proper, andIstria, one of the fourhistorical regions of Croatia.[1] Located in thePannonian Plain and taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with fiveCroatian counties:Brod-Posavina,Osijek-Baranja,Požega-Slavonia,Virovitica-Podravina, andVukovar-Syrmia, although the territory of the counties includesBaranya, and the definition of the western extent of Slavonia as a region varies. The counties cover 12,556 square kilometres (4,848 square miles) or 22.2% of Croatia, inhabited by 806,192—18.8% of Croatia's population. The largest city in the region isOsijek, followed bySlavonski Brod andVinkovci.
Slavonia is located in thePannonian Basin, largely bordered by theDanube,Drava, andSava rivers. In the west, the region consists of the Sava and Drava valleys and the mountains surrounding thePožega Valley, andplains in the east. Slavonia enjoys a moderatecontinental climate with relatively low precipitation.
After thefall of the Western Roman Empire, which ruled the area of modern-day Slavonia until the 5th century,Ostrogoths andLombards controlled the area before the arrival ofAvars andSlavs. TheSlavs in Lower Pannonia established a principality in the 7th century, which was later incorporated into theKingdom of Croatia; after its decline, the kingdom was ruled through apersonal union with Hungary. In theKingdom of Hungary, theBan of Slavonia was the King's governor of these lands, at various times distinct from theBan of Croatia.
TheOttoman conquest of Slavonia took place in the 16th century. At the turn of the 18th century, after theGreat Turkish War of 1683–1699, theTreaty of Karlowitz transferredKingdom of Slavonia to theHabsburgs. After theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Slavonia became part of theHungarian part of the realm, and a year later it became part of theKingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. In 1918, whenAustria-Hungary dissolved, Slavonia became a part of the short-livedState of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which in turn became a part of theKingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later renamedYugoslavia. During theCroatian War of Independence of 1991–1995, Slavonia saw fierce fighting, including the 1991Battle of Vukovar.
The economy of Slavonia is largely based onprocessing industry, trade, transport, and civil engineering. Agriculture is a significant component of its economy: Slavonia contains 45% of Croatia's agricultural land and accounts for a significant proportion of Croatia's livestock farming and production ofpermanent crops. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the five counties of Slavonia is worth 6,454 millioneuro or 8,005 euro per capita, 27.5% below national average. The GDP of the five counties represents 13.6% of Croatia's GDP.
The cultural heritage of Slavonia represents a blend of historical influences, especially those from the end of the 17th century, when Slavonia started recovering from theOttoman wars, and its traditional culture. Slavonia contributed to the culture of Croatia through art, writers, poets, sculptors, andart patronage. In traditional music, Slavonia comprises a distinct region of Croatia, and the traditional culture is preserved throughfolklore festivals, with prominence given totamburica music andbećarac, a form of traditional song, recognized as anintangible cultural heritage byUNESCO. The cuisine of Slavonia reflects diverse influences—a blend of traditional and foreign elements. Slavonia is one of Croatia's winemaking areas, withErdut,Ilok andKutjevo recognized as centres of wine production.
The nameSlavonia originated in theEarly Middle Ages. The area was named after theSlavs who settled there and called themselves *Slověne. The root *Slověn- appeared in various dialects oflanguages spoken by people inhabiting the area west of theSutla river, as well as between theSava andDrava rivers—South Slavs living in the area of the formerIllyricum. The area bounded by those rivers was called *Slověnьje in theProto-Slavic language. The word subsequently evolved to its various present forms in theSlavic languages, and other languages adopted the term.[2]
Remnants of severalNeolithic andChalcolithic cultures were found in all regions of Croatia,[3] but most of the sites are found in the river valleys of northern Croatia, including Slavonia. The most significant cultures whose presence was found include theStarčevo culture whose finds were discovered nearSlavonski Brod anddated to 6100–5200 BC,[4] theVučedol culture, theBaden culture and theKostolac culture.[5][6] Most finds attributed to the Baden and Vučedol cultures are discovered in the area near the right bank of the Danube nearVukovar,Vinkovci andOsijek. The Baden culture sites in Slavonia are dated to 3600–3300 BC,[7] and Vučedol culture finds are dated to 3000–2500 BC.[8] TheIron Age left traces of the earlyIllyrianHallstatt culture and theCelticLa Tène culture.[9] Much later, the region was settled by Illyrians and other tribes, including thePannonians, who controlled much of present-day Slavonia. Even though archaeological finds of Illyrian settlements are much sparser than in areas closer to theAdriatic Sea, significant discoveries, for instance inKaptol nearPožega have been made.[10] The Pannonians first came into contact with theRoman Republic in 35 BC, when the Romans conquered Segestica, or modern-daySisak. The conquest was completed in 11 BC, when theRoman province of Illyricum was established, encompassing modern-day Slavonia as well as a vast territory on the right bank of Danube. The province was renamed Pannonia and divided within two decades.[11]
After the collapse of theWestern Roman Empire, which included the territory occupied by modern-day Slavonia, the area became a part of theOstrogothic Kingdom by the end of the 5th century. However, control of the area proved a significant task, andLombards were given increasing control of Pannonia in the 6th century, which ended in their withdrawal in 568 and the arrival ofPannonian Avars and Slavs, who established control of Pannonia by the year 582.[12] After the fall of the Avar Khaganate at the beginning of the 9th century, inLower Pannonia there was a principality, governed by Slavic rulers who were vassals ofFrancs. Theinvasion of the Hungarian tribes overwhelmed this state. The eastern part of Slavonia in the 9th century may have been ruled byBulgars.[13] The first king of CroatiaTomislav defeated Hungarian andBulgarian invasions and spread the influence of Croatian kings northward to Slavonia.[14] The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns ofPetar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) andDmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089).[15] WhenStjepan II died in 1091, ending theTrpimirović dynasty,Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown. Opposition to the claim led to awar andpersonal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102, ruled byColoman.[16] In the 2nd half of the 12th century, Croatia and the territory between the Drava and the Sava were governed by theban of all Slavonia, appointed by the king. From the 13th century, a separate ban governed parts of present-daycentral Croatia, western Slavonia, and northwesternBosnia and Herzegovina, an area where a new entity emerged named Kingdom of Slavonia (Latin:regnum Sclavoniae), while modern-day eastern Slavonia was a part of Hungary. Croatia and Slavonia were in 1476 united under the sameban (viceroy), but kept separate parliaments until 1558.[17]
TheOttoman conquests in Croatia led to the 1493Battle of Krbava field and 1526Battle of Mohács, both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. KingLouis II of Hungary died at Mohács, andFerdinand I of theHouse of Habsburg waselected in 1527 as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he provide protection to Croatia against the Ottoman Empire, while respecting its political rights.[18][19] The period saw the rise to prominence of a native nobility such as theFrankopans and theŠubićs, and ultimately to numerousbans from the two families.[20] The present coat of arms of Slavonia, used in an official capacity as a part of thecoat of arms of Croatia,[21] dates from this period—it was granted to Slavonia by kingVladislaus II Jagiellon on 8 December 1496.[22]
Following the Battle of Mohács, the Ottomans expanded their possessions in Slavonia seizingĐakovo in 1536 and Požega in 1537, defeating a Habsburg army led byJohann Katzianer, who was attempting to retake Slavonia, atGorjani in September 1537. By 1540, Osijek was also under firm control of the Ottomans, and regular administration in Slavonia was introduced by establishing theSanjak of Pojega. The Ottoman control in Slavonia expanded asNovska surrendered the same year. Turkish conquest continued—Našice were seized in 1541,Orahovica andSlatina in 1542, and in 1543,Voćin,Sirač and, after a 40-day siege,Valpovo. In 1544, Ottoman forces conqueredPakrac. Lessening hostilities brought about a five-year truce in 1547 and temporary stabilization of the border between Habsburg and Ottoman empires, withVirovitica becoming the most significant defensive Habsburg fortress and Požega the most significant Ottoman centre in Slavonia, as Ottoman advances to Sisak andČazma were made, including a brief occupation of the cities. Further westward efforts of the Turkish forces presented a significant threat toZagreb and the rest of Croatia and the Hungarian kingdom, prompting a greater defensive commitment by the Habsburg Monarchy. One year after the 1547 truce ended,Ivan Lenković devised a system of fortifications and troops in the border areas, a forerunner of theCroatian Military Frontier. Nonetheless, in 1552, the Ottoman conquest of Slavonia was completed when Virovitica was captured.[24] Ottoman advances in the Croatian territory continued until the 1593Battle of Sisak, the first decisive Ottoman defeat, and a more lasting stabilisation of the frontier. During theGreat Turkish War (1683–1698), Slavonia was regained in between 1684 and 1691 when the Ottomans abandoned the region—unlike westernBosnia, which had been part of Croatia before theOttoman conquest.[19] The present-day southern border of Slavonia and the border between Croatia andBosnia and Herzegovina is a remnant of this outcome.[25][26]
TheOttoman wars instigated great demographic changes. Croats migrated towardsAustria and the present-dayBurgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers.[27] The Muslim population in Slavonia at the end of Turkish rule accounted for almost half of Slavonia's population who was indigenous, primarily Croats, less immigrants from Bosnia and Serbia and rarely genuine Turks or Arabs.[28] In the second half of the 16th century Vlachs from Slavonia were no longer an exclusive part of population because the Vlach privileges were attractive for many non-Vlachs who mixed with the Vlachs in order to get their status.[29] To replace the fleeing Croats, the Habsburgs called on theOrthodox populations ofBosnia andSerbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier. Serb migration into this region peaked during theGreat Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39.[30] The greatest Serb concentrations were in the eastern Slavonia, andSremski Karlovci became the see of Serbian Orthodox metropolitans.[31] Part of the colonists came to Slavonia from area south of theSava, especially from theSoli andUsora areas, continuing the process which already started after 1521. At beginning of the 17th century it seems that there was a new wave of colonization, about 10,000 families which are assumed to come fromSanjak of Klis or with less possibility from area ofSanjak of Bosnia.[32]
The areas acquired through theTreaty of Karlowitz were assigned to Croatia, itself in the union with Hungary and the union ruled by the Habsburgs. The border area along theUna, Sava and Danube rivers became theSlavonian Military Frontier. At this time, Osijek took over the role of the administrative and military centre of the newly formedKingdom of Slavonia from Požega.[26] The 1830s and 1840s sawromantic nationalism inspire theCroatian National Revival, a political and cultural campaign advocating unity of all South Slavs in the empire. Its primary focus was the establishment of a standard language as a counterweight toHungarian, along with the promotion of Croatian literature and culture.[33] During theHungarian Revolution of 1848 Croatia sided with the Austrians, BanJosip Jelačić helping to defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849, and ushering in a period ofGermanization policy.[34] By the 1860s, failure of the policy became apparent, leading to theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and creation of apersonal union between the crowns of theAustrian Empire and theKingdom of Hungary. The treaty left the issue of Croatia's status to Hungary as a part ofTransleithania—and the status was resolved by theCroatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868, when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united as theKingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.[35] AfterAustria-Hungary occupiedBosnia and Herzegovina following the1878 Treaty of Berlin, the Military Frontiers were abolished and the Croatian and Slavonian Military Frontier territory returned to Croatia-Slavonia in 1881,[19] pursuant to provisions of the Croatian-Hungarian Settlement.[36][37] At that time, the easternmost point of Croatia-Slavonia becameZemun, as all ofSyrmia was encompassed by the kingdom.[26]
On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Sabor declared independence and decided to join the newly formedState of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs,[18] which in turn entered into union with theKingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form theKingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.[39] TheTreaty of Trianon was signed in 1920, at the end ofWorld War I, between theAllies of World War I andHungary as one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary.[40] The treaty established the southern border of Hungary along the Drava andMura rivers, except inBaranya, where only the northern part of the county was kept by Hungary.[41][42] The territorial acquisition in Baranya was not made a part of Slavonia, even though adjacent to Osijek, because pre-1918 administrative divisions were disestablished by the new kingdom.[43] The political situation in the new kingdom deteriorated, leading to thedictatorship of KingAlexander in January 1929.[44] The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitarian constitution transferring executive power to the king, and changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia.[45] TheCvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 created the autonomousBanovina of Croatia incorporating Slavonia. Pursuant to the agreement, the Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed 'Ban'.[46]
In April 1941,Yugoslavia was occupied byGermany andItaly. Following the invasion the territory of Slavonia was incorporated into theIndependent State of Croatia, a Nazi-backedpuppet state and assigned as a zone under German occupation for the duration ofWorld War II. The regime introducedanti-semitic laws and conducted a campaign of ethnic cleansing andgenocide against Serb andRoma populations,[47] exemplified by theJasenovac andStara Gradiška concentration camps,[48] but to a much lesser extent in Slavonia than in other regions, due to strategic interests of the Axis in keeping peace in the area.[49] The largestmassacre occurred in 1942 inVoćin.[50][page needed]
Armed resistance soon developed in the region, and by 1942, theYugoslav Partisans controlled substantial territories, especially in mountainous parts of Slavonia.[51] The Serbian royalistChetniks, who carried outgenocide against Croat civilian population,[52] struggled to establish a significant presence in Slavonia throughout the war.[49] Partisans led byJosip Broz Tito took full control of Slavonia in April 1945.[53] After the war, the new Yugoslav government interned localGermans in camps in Slavonia, the largest of which were inValpovo and Krndija, where many died of hunger and diseases.[54]
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After World War II, Croatia—including Slavonia—became asingle-partySocialist federal unit of theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, ruled by theCommunists, but enjoying a degree of autonomy within the federation. The autonomy effectively increased after the1974 Yugoslav Constitution, basically fulfilling a goal of theCroatian Spring movement, and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents.[55] In 1947, when all borders of the former Yugoslav constituent republics had been defined by demarcation commissions, pursuant to decisions of theAVNOJ of 1943 and 1945, the federal organization ofYugoslav Baranya was defined as Croatian territory allowing its integration with Slavonia. The commissions also set up the present-day 317.6-kilometre (197.3 mi) border between Serbia and Croatia in Syrmia, and along theDanube River betweenIlok and mouth of the Drava and further north to the Hungarian border, the section south of confluence of the Drava matching the border between theKingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and theBács-Bodrog County that existed until 1918 and the end of World War I.[56]
The1964 Slavonia earthquake caused widespread devastation and several human casualties. A large area of the region entered a period of several years of reconstruction afterwards.[57]
In the 1980s the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated with national tension fanned by the 1986 SerbianSANU Memorandum and the1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro.[58][59] In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatianfaction demanding a looser federation.[60] In the same year, thefirst multi-party elections were held in Croatia, withFranjo Tuđman's win raising nationalist tensions further.[61] TheSerbs in Croatia, intent on achieving independence from Croatia, left the Sabor and declared the autonomy of areas that would soon become the unrecognized self-declaredRepublic of Serbian Krajina (RSK).[62][63] As tensions rose, Croatiadeclared independence in June 1991; however the declaration came into effect on 8 October 1991.[64][65] Tensions escalated into theCroatian War of Independence when theYugoslav National Army and various Serbparamilitaries attacked Croatia.[66] By the end of 1991, a high intensity war fought along a wide front reduced Croatia to controlling about two-thirds of its territory.[67][68]
In Slavonia, the first armed conflicts were clashes inPakrac,[69][70] andBorovo Selo near Vukovar.[71][72]Western Slavonia was occupied in August 1991, following an advance by theYugoslav forces north fromBanja Luka across the Sava River.[73] This was partially pushed back by theCroatian Army in operations namedOtkos 10,[66] andOrkan 91, which established a front line aroundOkučani and south of Pakrac that would hold virtually unchanged for more than three years untilOperation Flash in May 1995.[74] Armed conflict in theeastern Slavonia, culminating in theBattle of Vukovar and a subsequentmassacre,[75][76] also included heavy fighting and the successful defence of Osijek and Vinkovci. The front line stabilized and a ceasefire was agreed to on 2 January 1992, coming into force the next day.[77] After the ceasefire,United Nations Protection Force was deployed to the occupied areas,[78] but intermittent artillery and rocket attacks, launched fromSerb-held areas of Bosnia, continued in several areas of Slavonia, especially in Slavonski Brod andŽupanja.[79][80] The war effectively ended in 1995 with Croatia achieving adecisive victory over the RSK in August 1995.[81] The remaining occupied areas—eastern Slavonia—were restored to Croatia pursuant to theErdut Agreement of November 1995, with the process concluded in mid-January 1998.[82]
After the war, a number of towns and municipalities in the region were designatedAreas of Special State Concern.
TheCroatian counties were re-established in 1992, but their borders changed in some instances, with the latest revision taking place in 2006.[83] Slavonia consists of five counties—Brod-Posavina,Osijek-Baranja,Požega-Slavonia,Virovitica-Podravina andVukovar-Syrmia counties—which largely cover the territory historically associated with Slavonia. The western borders of the five-county territory lie in the area where the western boundary of Slavonia generally has been located since the Ottoman conquest, with the remaining borders being at the international borders ofCroatia.[26] This places the Croatian part ofBaranya into the Slavonian counties, constituting the Eastern Croatiamacroregion.[84] TermsEastern Croatia andSlavonia are increasingly used as synonyms.[85] The Brod-Posavina County comprises twocities—Slavonski Brod andNova Gradiška—and 26 Municipalities of Croatia.[86] The Osijek-Baranja County consists of seven cities—Beli Manastir,Belišće,Donji Miholjac, Đakovo, Našice, Osijek and Valpovo—and 35 municipalities.[87] The Požega-Slavonia County comprises five cities—Kutjevo,Lipik, Pakrac,Pleternica and Požega—and five municipalities.[88] The Virovitica-Podravina County covers three cities—Orahovica, Slatina and Virovitica—and 13 municipalities.[89] The Vukovar-Srijem County encompasses five cities—Ilok,Otok, Vinkovci, Vukovar and Županja—and 26 municipalities.[90] The whole of Slavonia is the eastern half of Central and Eastern (Pannonian) CroatiaNUTS-2 statistical unit of Croatia, together with further areas ofCentral Croatia. Other statistical units correspond to the counties, cities and municipalities.[91] The five counties combined cover area size of 12,556 square kilometres (4,848 square miles), representing 22.2% of territory of Croatia.[92]
| County | Seat | Area (km2) | Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brod-Posavina | Slavonski Brod | 2,043 | 130,782 |
| Osijek-Baranja | Osijek | 4,152 | 259,481 |
| Požega-Slavonia | Požega | 1,845 | 64,420 |
| Virovitica-Podravina | Virovitica | 2,068 | 70,660 |
| Vukovar-Syrmia | Vukovar | 2,448 | 144,438 |
| TOTAL: | 12,556 | 669,781 | |
| Source:Croatian Bureau of Statistics[92][93] | |||
The boundaries of Slavonia, as a geographical region, do not necessarily coincide with the borders of the five counties, except in the south and east where the Sava and Danube rivers define them. The international borders of Croatia are boundaries common to both definitions of the region. In the north, the boundaries largely coincide because the Drava River is considered to be the northern border of Slavonia as a geographic region,[56] but this excludes Baranya from the geographic region's definition even though this territory is part of a county otherwise associated with Slavonia.[94][95][96] The western boundary of the geographic region is not specifically defined and it was variously defined through history depending on the political divisions of Croatia.[26] The eastern Croatia, as a geographic term, largely overlaps most definitions of Slavonia. It is defined as the territory of the Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Virovitica-Podravina and Vukovar-Syrmia counties, including Baranya.[97]
-2.jpg)
| Mountain | Peak | Elevation | Coordinates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Psunj | Brezovo Polje | 984 m (3,228 ft) | 45°24′N17°19′E / 45.400°N 17.317°E /45.400; 17.317 |
| Papuk | Papuk | 953 m (3,127 ft) | 45°32′N17°39′E / 45.533°N 17.650°E /45.533; 17.650 |
| Krndija | Kapovac | 792 m (2,598 ft) | 45°27′N17°55′E / 45.450°N 17.917°E /45.450; 17.917 |
| Požeška Gora | Kapavac | 618 m (2,028 ft) | 45°17′N17°35′E / 45.283°N 17.583°E /45.283; 17.583 |
%2c_location_Ivandvor%2c_2015-05-01_(1301).JPG)
Slavonia is entirely located in thePannonian Basin, one of three majorgeomorphological parts of Croatia.[98] The Pannonian Basin took shape throughMiocenian thinning andsubsidence of crust structures formed during LatePaleozoicVariscan orogeny. The Paleozoic andMesozoic structures are visible inPapuk,Psunj and other Slavonian mountains. The processes also led to the formation of astratovolcanic chain in the basin 17 – 12 Mya (million years ago) and intensified subsidence observed until 5 Mya as well asflood basalts about 7.5 Mya. Contemporary uplift of theCarpathian Mountains prevented water flowing to theBlack Sea, and thePannonian Sea formed in the basin. Sediments were transported to the basin from uplifting Carpathian andDinaric mountains, with particularly deep fluvial sediments being deposited in thePleistocene during the uplift of theTransdanubian Mountains.[99] Ultimately, up to 3,000 metres (9,800 feet) of the sediment was deposited in the basin, and the Pannonian sea eventually drained through theIron Gate gorge.[100] In the southern Pannonian Basin, theNeogene toQuaternary sediment depth is normally lower, averaging 500 to 1,500 metres (1,600 to 4,900 feet), except in central parts of depressions formed bysubduction—around 4,000 metres (13,000 feet) in the Slavonia-Syrmia depression, 5,500 metres (18,000 feet) in the Sava depression and nearly 7,000 metres (23,000 feet) in the Drava depression, with the deepest sediment found between Virovitica and Slatina.[101]
The results of those processes are largeplains in eastern Slavonia, Baranya and Syrmia, as well as in river valleys, especially along the Sava, Drava andKupa. The plains are interspersed by thehorst andgraben structures, believed to have broken the Pannonian Sea surface asislands.[citation needed] The tallest among such landforms in Slavonia are 984-metre (3,228 ft)Psunj, and 953-metre (3,127 ft) Papuk—flanking thePožega Valley from the west and the north.[92] These two andKrndija, adjacent to Papuk, consist mostly of Paleozoic rocks which are 350 – 300 million years old.Požeška Gora andDilj, to the east of Psunj and enveloping the valley from the south, consist of much more recent Neogene rocks, but Požeška Gora also contains UpperCretaceous sediments andigneous rocks forming the main, 30-kilometre (19 mi)ridge of the hill and representing the largest igneous landform in Croatia. A smaller igneous landform is also present on Papuk, near Voćin.[102] The two mountains, as well asMoslavačka gora, west of Pakrac, are possible remnants of avolcanic arc related toAlpine orogeny—uplifting of the Dinaric Alps.[103] The Đakovo – Vukovarloess plain, extending eastward from Dilj and representing the watershed between theVuka andBosut rivers, gradually rises to theFruška Gora south of Ilok.[104]
The largest rivers in Slavonia are found along or near its borders—the Danube, Sava and Drava. The length of the Danube, flowing along the eastern border of Slavonia and through the cities of Vukovar and Ilok, is 188 kilometres (117 miles), and its main tributaries are the Drava 112-kilometre (70 mi) and the Vuka. The Drava discharges into the Danube nearAljmaš, east of Osijek, while mouth of the Vuka is located in Vukovar.
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Major tributaries of the Sava, flowing along the southern border of Slavonia and through cities of Slavonski Brod and Županja are 89-kilometre (55 mi) theOrljava flowing through Požega, and the Bosut—whose 151-kilometre (94 mi) course in Slavonia takes it through Vinkovci. There are no large lakes in Slavonia. The largest ones are Lake Kopačevo whose surface area varies between 1.5 and 3.5 square kilometres (0.58 and 1.35 square miles), and BorovikReservoir covering 2.5 square kilometres (0.97 square miles).[92] The Lake Kopačevo is connected to the Danube via Hulovski canal, situated within theKopački Ritwetland,[105] while the Lake Borovik is an artificial lake created in 1978 in the upper course of the Vuka River.[106]
The entirety of Slavonia belongs to theDanube basin and theBlack Sea catchment area, but it is divided in two sub-basins. One of those drains into the Sava—itself a Danube tributary—and the other into the Drava or directly into the Danube. Thedrainage divide between the two sub-basins runs along the Papuk and Krndija mountains, in effect tracing the southern boundary of the Virovitica-Podravina County and the northern boundary of Požega-Slavonia County, cuts through the Osijek-Podravina County north of Đakovo, and finally bisects the Vukovar-Syrmia County running between Vukovar and Vinkovci to reach Fruška Gora southwest of Ilok. All of Brod-Posavina County is located in the Sava sub-basin.[107]
Most of Croatia, including Slavonia, has a moderately warm and rainyhumid continental climate as defined by theKöppen climate classification. Mean annual temperature averages 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F), with the warmest month, July, averaging just below 22 °C (72 °F). Temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas—the lowest temperature of −27.8 °C (−18.0 °F) was recorded on 24 January 1963 in Slavonski Brod,[108] and the highest temperature of 40.5 °C (104.9 °F) was recorded on 5 July 1950 in Đakovo.[109] The lowest level of precipitation is recorded in the eastern parts of Slavonia at less than 700 millimetres (28 inches) per year, mostly during thegrowing season. The western parts of Slavonia receive 900 to 1,000 millimetres (35 to 39 inches) precipitation. Low winter temperatures and the distribution of precipitation throughout the year normally result in snow cover, and freezing rivers—requiring use oficebreakers, and in extreme cases explosives,[110] to maintain the flow of water and navigation.[111] Slavonia receives more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year on average. Prevailing winds are light to moderate, northeasterly and southwesterly.[92]
.png)
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1857 | 412,303 | — |
| 1869 | 472,317 | +14.6% |
| 1880 | 470,373 | −0.4% |
| 1890 | 548,264 | +16.6% |
| 1900 | 604,664 | +10.3% |
| 1910 | 670,246 | +10.8% |
| 1921 | 666,723 | −0.5% |
| 1931 | 755,860 | +13.4% |
| 1948 | 782,596 | +3.5% |
| 1953 | 830,224 | +6.1% |
| 1961 | 903,350 | +8.8% |
| 1971 | 950,403 | +5.2% |
| 1981 | 954,491 | +0.4% |
| 1991 | 977,391 | +2.4% |
| 2001 | 891,259 | −8.8% |
| 2011 | 805,998 | −9.6% |
| 2021 | 665,858 | −17.4% |
| Source:Croatian Bureau of Statistics publications1 | ||
According to the 2011 census, the total population of the five counties of Slavonia was 806,192, accounting for 19% of population of Croatia. The largest portion of the total population of Slavonia lives in Osijek-Baranja county, followed by Vukovar-Syrmia county. Požega-Slavonia county is the least populous county of Slavonia. Overall the population density stands at 64.2 persons per square kilometre. The population density ranges from 77.6 to 40.9 persons per square kilometre, with the highest density recorded in Brod-Posavina county and the lowest in Virovitica-Podravina county. Osijek is the largest city in Slavonia, followed by Slavonski Brod, Vinkovci and Vukovar. Other cities in Slavonia have populations below 20,000.[93] According to the 2001 census,Croats account for 85.6 percent of population of Slavonia, and the most significant ethnic minorities are Serbs andHungarians, comprising 8.8 percent and 1.4 percent of the population respectively. The largest portion of the Serb minority was recorded in Vukovar-Syrmia county (15 percent), while the largest Hungarian minority, in both relative and absolute terms, was observed in Osijek-Baranja county. The census recorded 85.4% of the population declaring themselves asCatholic, with further 4.4% belonging toSerbian Orthodox Church and 0.7%Muslims. 3.1% declared themselves asnon-religious,agnostics or declined to declare their religion. The most widely used language in the region isCroatian, declared as thefirst language by 93.6% of the total population, followed bySerbian (2.6%) andHungarian (1.0%).[112]
The demographic history of Slavonia is characterised by significant migrations, as is that of Croatia as a whole, starting with the arrival of the Croats, between the 6th and 9th centuries.[113] Following the establishment of the personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102,[16] and the joining of the Habsburg monarchy in 1527,[18] the Hungarian and German speaking population of Croatia began gradually increasing in number. The processes ofMagyarization and Germanization varied in intensity but persisted until the beginning of the 20th century.[34][114] The Ottoman conquests initiated a westward migration of parts of the Croatian population;[115] the Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of some of those settlers.[27] To replace the fleeing Croats the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier. Serb migration into this region peaked during theGreat Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39.[30] Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the Hungarian population declined, due to emigration and ethnic bias. The changes were especially significant in the areas north of the Drava river, and Baranja County where they represented the majority before World War I.[116]
| Rank | City | County | Urban population | Municipal population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Osijek | Osijek-Baranja | 83,496 | 107,784 |
| 2 | Slavonski Brod | Brod-Posavina | 53,473 | 59,507 |
| 3 | Vinkovci | Vukovar-Syrmia | 31,961 | 35,375 |
| 4 | Vukovar | Vukovar-Syrmia | 26,716 | 28,016 |
| 5 | Požega | Požega-Slavonia | 19,565 | 26,403 |
| 6 | Đakovo | Osijek-Baranja | 19,508 | 27,798 |
| 7 | Virovitica | Virovitica-Podravina | 14,663 | 21,327 |
| 8 | Županja | Vukovar-Syrmia | 12,115 | 12,185 |
| 9 | Nova Gradiška | Brod-Posavina | 11,767 | 14,196 |
| 10 | Slatina | Virovitica-Podravina | 10,152 | 13,609 |
| County seats are indicated withbold font. Sources:Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2011 Census[93] | ||||
Since the end of the 19th century there was substantial economic emigration abroad from Croatia in general.[117][118] After World War I, the Yugoslav regime confiscated up to 50 percent of properties and encouraged settlement of the land by Serb volunteers and war veterans in Slavonia,[26] only to have them evicted and replaced by up to 70,000 new settlers by the regime during World War II.[119] During World War II and in the period immediately following the war, there were further significant demographic changes, as the German-speaking population, theDanube Swabians, were either forced or otherwise compelled to leave—reducing their number from the prewar German population ofYugoslavia of 500,000, living in Slavonia and other parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia, to the figure of 62,000 recorded in the 1953 census.[120] The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by colonisation of settlements where the displaced Germans used to live, by people from the mountainous parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, and migrations to larger cities spurred on by the development of industry.[121][failed verification] In the 1960s and 1970s, another wave of economic migrants left—largely moving toCanada,Australia,New Zealand andWestern Europe.[122][123][124]
The most recent changes to the ethnic composition of Slavonian counties occurred between censuses conducted in 1991 and 2001. The 1991 census recorded a heterogenous population consisting mostly of Croats and Serbs—at 72 percent and 17 percent of the total population respectively. The Croatian War of Independence, and the ethnic fracturing of Yugoslavia that preceded it, caused an exodus of the Croat population followed by an exodus of Serbs. The return of refugees since the end of hostilities is not complete—a majority of Croat refugees returned, while fewer Serbs did. In addition, ethnic Croats moved to Slavonia from Bosnia and Herzegovina and from Serbia.[84]
The economy of Slavonia is largely based onwholesale andretail trade andprocessing industry.Food processing is one of the most significant types of the processing industries in the region, supporting agricultural production in the area and encompassingmeat packing,fruit and vegetable processing,sugar refining,confectionery anddairy industry. In addition, there arewineries in the region that are significant toeconomy of Croatia. Other types of the processing industry significant to Slavonia arewood processing, including production offurniture,cellulose, paper andcardboard;metalworking,textile industry andglass production.Transport andcivil engineering are two further significant economic activities in Slavonia.[125]
The largest industrial centre of Slavonia is Osijek, followed by other county seats—Slavonski Brod, Virovitica, Požega and Vukovar, as well as several other cities, especially Vinkovci.[126][127][128][129][130]
The gross domestic product (GDP) of the five counties in Slavonia combined (in year 2008) amounted to 6,454 millioneuro, or 8,005 euro per capita—27.5% below Croatia's national average. The GDP of the five counties represented 13.6% of Croatia's GDP.[131] SeveralPan-European transport corridors run through Slavonia: corridor Vc as theA5 motorway, corridor X as theA3 motorway and a double-track railway spanning Slavonia from west to east, and corridor VII—the Danube River waterway.[132] The waterway is accessed through the Port of Vukovar, the largest Croatian river port, situated on the Danube itself, and the Port of Osijek on the Drava River, 14.5 kilometres (9.0 miles) away from confluence of the rivers.[133]
Another major sector of the economy of Slavonia is agriculture, which also provides part of the raw materials for the processing industry. Out of 1,077,403 hectares (2,662,320 acres) of utilized agricultural land in Croatia, 493,878 hectares (1,220,400 acres), or more than 45%, are found in Slavonia, with the largest portion of the land situated in the Osijek-Baranja and Vukovar-Syrmia counties. The largest areas are used for production ofcereals andoilseeds, covering 574,916 hectares (1,420,650 acres) and 89,348 hectares (220,780 acres) respectively. Slavonia's share in Croatia's agriculturally productive land is greatest in the production of cereals (53.5%),legumes (46.8%), oilseeds (88.8%), sugar beet (90%), tobacco (97.9%), plants used in pharmaceutical or perfume industry (80.9%), flowers, seedlings and seeds (80.3%) and plants used in the textile industry (69%). Slavonia also contributes 25.7% of cattle, 42.7% of pigs and 20% of the poultry stock of Croatia. There are 5,138 hectares (12,700 acres) of vineyards in Slavonia, representing 18.6% of total vineyards area in Croatia. Production of fruit and nuts also takes up a significant agricultural area. Apple orchards cover 1,261 hectares (3,120 acres), representing 42.3% of Croatia's apple plantations, plums are produced in orchards encompassing 450 hectares (1,100 acres) or 59.7% of Croatia's plum plantations and hazelnut orchards cover 319 hectares (790 acres), which account for 72.4% of hazelnut plantations in Croatia. Other significant permanent crops are cherries, pears, peaches and walnuts.[134]
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| Counties of Slavonia byGDP, in millionEuro | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| County | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 |
| Brod-Posavina | 575 | 643 | 699 | 717 | 782 | 786 | 869 | 931 | 1,074 | 968 |
| Osijek-Baranja | 1,370 | 1,499 | 1,699 | 1,710 | 1,884 | 1,999 | 2,193 | 2,538 | 2,844 | 2,590 |
| Požega-Slavonia | 337 | 371 | 395 | 428 | 456 | 472 | 484 | 541 | 557 | 510 |
| Virovitica-Podravina | 378 | 434 | 465 | 478 | 493 | 497 | 584 | 616 | 661 | 561 |
| Vukovar-Srijem | 651 | 723 | 795 | 836 | 889 | 964 | 1,098 | 1,144 | 1,318 | 1,180 |
| Source:Croatian Bureau of Statistics[135][136][137][138] | ||||||||||
| Counties of Slavonia byGDP per capita, inEuro | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| County | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 |
| Brod-Posavina | 3,260 | 3,633 | 3,955 | 4,065 | 4,452 | 4,487 | 4,972 | 5,345 | 6,183 | 5,606 |
| Osijek-Baranja | 4,147 | 4,537 | 5,149 | 5,199 | 5,750 | 6,127 | 6,757 | 7,875 | 8,871 | 8,112 |
| Požega-Slavonia | 3,934 | 4,320 | 4,610 | 5,020 | 5,383 | 5,605 | 5,786 | 6,505 | 6,750 | 6,229 |
| Virovitica-Podravina | 4,045 | 4,654 | 5,016 | 5,176 | 5,410 | 5,485 | 6,497 | 6,923 | 7,485 | 6,399 |
| Vukovar-Srijem | 3,184 | 3,528 | 3,903 | 4,127 | 4,414 | 4,807 | 5,501 | 5,756 | 6,647 | 5,974 |
| Source:Croatian Bureau of Statistics[135][136][137][138] | ||||||||||
In 2010, only two companies headquartered in Slavonia ranked among top 100Croatian companies—Belje, agricultural industry owned byAgrokor,[139] andBelišće,paper mill and paperpackaging material factory,[140] headquartered inDarda andBelišće respectively, both in Osijek-Baranja County. Belje ranks as the 44th and Belišće as the 99th largest Croatian company byincome. Other significant businesses in the county include civil engineering companyOsijek-Koteks (rank 103),[141]Saponiadetergent andpersonal care product factory (rank 138),[142]Biljemerkant retail business (rank 145),[143] andNašicecementcement plant (rank 165), a part ofNexe Grupa construction product manufacturing company.[144] Sugar refining companyViro,[145] ranked the 101st and headquartered in Virovitica, is the largest company in Virovitica-Podravina County. Đuro Đaković Montaža d.d., a part of metal processing industryĐuro Đaković Holding of Slavonski Brod,[146] ranks the 171st among the Croatian companies and it is the largest business in Brod-Posavina County. Another agricultural industry company,Kutjevo d.d., headquartered inKutjevo, is the largest company in Požega-Slavonia County,[147] ranks the 194th in Croatia by business income. Finally, the largest company by income in Vukovar-Syrmia county is another Agrokor owned agricultural production company—Vupik, headquartered in Vukovar,[148] and ranking the 161st among the companies headquartered in Croatia.[149]
Thecultural heritage of Slavonia represents a blend of social influences through its history, especially since the end of the 17th century, and the traditional culture. A particular impact was made byBaroque art and architecture of the 18th century, when the cities of Slavonia started developing after the Ottoman wars ended and stability was restored to the area. The period saw great prominence of the nobility, who were awarded estates in Slavonia by the imperial court in return for their service during the wars. They includedPrince Eugene of Savoy, theHouse of Esterházy, the House ofOdescalchi,Philipp Karl von Eltz-Kempenich, the House ofPrandau-Normann, theHouse of Pejačević and theHouse of Janković. That in turn encouraged an influx of contemporary European culture to the region. Subsequent development of the cities and society saw the influence ofNeoclassicism,Historicism and especially ofArt Nouveau.[94]
The heritage of the region includes numerouslandmarks, especiallymanor houses built by the nobility in largely in the 18th and the 19th centuries. Those includePrandau-Normann andPrandau-Mailath manor houses inValpovo andDonji Miholjac respectively,[150][151] manor houses in Baranja—inBilje,[152] at a former Esterházy estate in Darda,[153] inTikveš,[154] and inKneževo.[155] Pejačevićs built several residences, the most representative ones among them beingmanor house in Virovitica and thePejačević manor house in Našice.[156] Further east, along the Danube, there areOdescalchi manor house in Ilok,[157] andEltz manor house in Vukovar—the latter sustained extensive damage during the Battle of Vukovar in 1991,[158] but it was reconstructed by 2011.[159] In the southeast of the region, the most prominent areKutjevo Jesuit manor house,[160] andCernik manor house, located inKutjevo andCernik respectively.[161] The period also saw construction ofTvrđa andBrodfortifications in Osijek and Slavonski Brod.[162][163] Older, medieval fortifications are preserved only asruins—the largest among those beingRužica Castle nearOrahovica.[164] Another landmark dating to the 19th century is theĐakovo Cathedral—hailed by thePope John XXIII as the most beautiful church situated betweenVenice andIstanbul.[165][166]
Slavonia significantly contributed to the culture of Croatia as a whole, both through works of artists and through patrons of the arts—most notable among them beingJosip Juraj Strossmayer.[168] Strossmayer was instrumental in the establishment of theYugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts, later renamed the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts,[169] and the reestablishment of theUniversity of Zagreb.[170] A number of Slavonia's artists, especially writers, made considerable contributions to Croatian culture. Nineteenth-century writers who are most significant in Croatian literature includeJosip Eugen Tomić,Josip Kozarac, andMiroslav Kraljević—author of the first Croatian novel.[168] Significant twentieth-century poets and writers in Slavonia wereDobriša Cesarić,Dragutin Tadijanović,Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić andAntun Gustav Matoš.[171] Painters associated with Slavonia, who contributed greatly to Croatian art, wereMiroslav Kraljević andBela Čikoš Sesija.[172]
Slavonia is a distinct region of Croatia in terms of ethnological factors in traditional music. It is a region where traditional culture is preserved throughfolklore festivals. Typical traditional music instruments belong to thetamburica andbagpipe family.[173] The tamburica is the most representative musical instrument associated with Slavonia's traditional culture. It developed from music instruments brought by the Ottomans during their rule of Slavonia, becoming an integral part of the traditional music, its use surpassing or even replacing the use of bagpipes andgusle.[174] A distinct form of traditional song, originating in Slavonia, thebećarac, is recognized as anintangible cultural heritage byUNESCO.[175][176]
Out of 122 Croatia's universities and other institutions ofhigher education,[177] Slavonia is home to one university—Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek—[178] as well as threepolytechnics in Požega, Slavonski Brod and Vukovar, as well as acollege in Virovitica—all set up and run by thegovernment.[179][180] The University of Osijek, has been established in 1975,[181] but the first institution of higher education in the city wasStudium Philosophicum Essekini founded in 1707, and active until 1780.[182] Another historical institution of higher education wasAcademia Posegana operating in Požega between 1761 and 1776,[183] as an extension of agymnasium operating in the city continuously,[184] since it opened in 1699 as the firstsecondary education school in Slavonia.[185]
The cuisine of Slavonia reflects cultural influences on the region through the diversity of its culinary influences. The most significant among those were fromHungarian,Viennese, Central European, as well asTurkish andArab cuisines brought by series of conquests and accompanying social influences. The ingredients of traditional dishes arepickled vegetables, dairy products andsmoked meats.[186] The most famous traditional preserved meat product iskulen, one of a handful Croatian products protected by the EU as indigenous products.[187]
Slavonia is one of Croatia's winemaking sub-regions, a part of its continental winegrowing region. The best known winegrowing areas of Slavonia are centered onĐakovo,Ilok andKutjevo, whereGraševina grapes are predominant, but othercultivars are increasingly present.[188] In past decades, an increasing quantity of wine production in Slavonia was accompanied by increasing quality and growing recognition at home and abroad.[189] Grape vines were first grown in the region of Ilok, as early as the 3rd century AD. The oldest Slavonian wine cellar still in continuous use for winemaking is located in Kutjevo—built in 1232 byCistercians.[190]
Slavonianoak is used to makebotti, large barrels traditionally used in thePiedmont region ofItaly to makenebbiolo wines.[191]
Virtually the entire population of what remained of Hungary regarded the Treaty of Trianon as manifestly unfair, and agitation for revision began immediately.
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